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ARCHITECTURAL
DRAWING

WOOSTER. BARD FIELD

ARCHITECT

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING DRAWING
THE OHIO 6TATE UNIVERSITY

WITH AN INTRODUCTION
AND ARTICLE ON LETTERING

THOMAS E. FRENCH

PROFESSOR OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
Eighth Impression

i®vc

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1922

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

THE MAPue PRESS - YORK PA

^WA

z.'too

PREFACE

■% An exhaustive treatment of the subject of Architectural Drawing presents so many ramifications

that, to cover them fully, several volumes of text and many expensive plates are required. Almost with-

^ out exception these books and i)ortfolios each deal with but one phase of the subject and go into that at

some length. For this reason the architectural student must ha\e access to a rather voluminous library

or else invest in a number of more or less expensive books. Even with such a library available, the

average student is at a loss to know how to go about his studies, and where there is such an abundance of

\ material to select from, finds it very difficult to proceed intelligently. For one who is under the direction

^ of an instructor, this difficulty is not so pronounced, but the latter arrangement presents to him another

^ problem. He is usually working in a class with a number of others all of whom need the material at the

N same time.

^ Both teaching and office experience have proved that there are certain classes of information which

*^ should be at the draftsman's elbow at all times. This is true whether he be a student or employed in an
office.

An effort has been made in the preparation of this book, to provide for the student those things
^ which are of fundamental importance in his initial study of the subject, together with a careful presenta-
tion of some of the more important points that are usually left for him to acquire during his office experi-
ence after he has left school.

The material, though prepared primarily for the architectural student, will be found invaluable to
anyone who deals with architectural work. It will enable the artisan, in any of the building or allied
trades, to read the drawings and take off the quantities of his work for estimation purposes. He can
then execute the work, according to the plans and specifications, without being dependent upon another
for the interpretation of the drawings.

The articles are taken up in the sequence in which the work naturally goes forward on the board.
This is not usually the order of procedure in studying the subject, but seems to be the logical way of
o recording it, since it gives the reader a comprehensive and well-ordered idea of the entire process. For
the beginner, a preliminary explanation is made of the method of Orthographic Projection and its
application to architectural drawing. This is followed by a description of the drawing instruments,
after which are given those geometric solutions most used by the architect. Preliminary sketches,
Scale and Detail Drawings, and the Orders of Architecture are then taken up. Under the subject of
Scale Drawings are given t\-pical examples of drawings which represent buildings of different materials
and methods of construction, to show the student how prominent architects have taken care of such
conditions. Notes have been added calling attention to the particular points illustrated. In addition
to the instruction in drawing, is an article on Lettering as applied to architectural work.

A suggested course of study has been added as a guide to the student. This is presented in such a

way as to serve as an outline for either a simple or a comprehensive course. It gives the student a

definite order of procedure but makes it optional with him as to the extent of his work in each department.

^^'hiie the book deals primaril\- with architectural drawing, suggestions are made for further study

into both architectural design and engineering.

vii

2G09.Sii

PREFACE

The architectural and building terms will pro\ide a working vocabulary and an acquaintance with
building parts.

The drafting room data will prove useful in the preparation of drawings.

The size of the book and style of binding have been found by experience to be the most practicable
for use on the drav\ang board.

The help and encouragement of those architects whose work so well illustrates the text, are greatly
appreciated. The use of drawings for buildings which have actually been erected, lends to the book a
feeling of realness which could not have been attained by drawings invented for the occasion. Apprecia-
tion is hereby expressed also to J. S. MacLean of Columbus, Ohio, for his practical criticism of the mill
work details and especially to Professor Thos. E. French for his kindly interest and helpful suggestions
and for his Introduction and Article on Lettering.

VV. B. F.

Columbus, Ohio,
June, 1922.

vin

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction i

Articlk I. Graphic Methods of Representation 5

Article II. Drawing Instruments and their Use 9

Article III. Geometric Methods 11

Article IV. Preliminary Sketches 16

Perspective 21

Isometric 29

Oblique 31

Shades and Sliadows 33

Rendering 43

Article V. Scale Drawings 46

Article VI. Detail Drawings 85

Article VII. The Orders of Architecture 105

Article VIII. The Acanthus Leaf 125

Article IX. Mouldings 127

Article X. Architectural Lettering 131

Outline of Study 143

Reference Books 147

Architectltral AND Building Terms . . .■ 151

Alphabetical Index 157

INTRODUCTION

By Thomas E. P'rench'

Architecture is one of the fine arts, taking its place along with sculpture, painting and music. As
an art it is creative, rather than representative and involves perhaps a greater diversity of skill and
knowledge than do any of the others. To be successful in it as a profession there is required in the first
place a certain degree of native talent, and second, an extensive and thorough technical training. The
true architect has an inherent sense of beauty of form and color — an instinctive feeling of proportion and
balance and s\iiimetry and harmony. This natural equipment when coupled with historical knowledge
and technical ability enables him to design buildings that are not only well adapted to their purpose,
structurally economical and safe, but are expressive, satisfying, and pleasing to the eye.

The architect is essentially an artist, keen in appreciation as well as facile with the pencil, and with
a strongly developed constructive imagination. He must be able to think in three dimensions, to visu-
alize the appearance of a proposed piece of work and see the picture of it in his mind's eye as clearly as
if it were standing erected before him. This imaginatix-e ability is not concerned alone with the exterior
effect, but extends through the interior. The architect walks through a building whose proposed plan
lies before him on the table just as surely as he will walk through the actual structure later when it has
been built. The plan to him is not simply a diagram showing the location and arrangement of rooms.
He feels himself in the house, sees the vistas, the heights of the ceilings, the proportions of rooms, and
the prospects from the windows. He visualizes the color scheme which he would propose, the furniture
and fittings, then by sketches and drawings conveys his thoughts to client and contractor.

Architectural drawing is the graphic language by which the architect develops and records his
ideas, and communicates his instructions to the builder. Taken as a whole it is a language with many
varied forms of expression and is capable of numerous divisions and subdivisions.

One kind of classification might be based on the methods of execution, separating freehand sketches,
made without ruling or measurement, from scale drawings, which are measured and drawn accurately
with instruments.

Another classification would be in the distinction between drawings of the structure made as it
would appear to the eye, or perspective drawing and drawings made to give the actual forms and sizes,
or projection drawing.

The student in Architecture should be trained in freehand drawing. The pencil is the best all-
around medium but he should know the technicjue of pen-and-ink, charcoal and water-color. Drawing
from the antique, still-life and life are usually included in the work of an architectural school, but the
student should supplement these courses by constant practice. He should form the habit of carrying
a sketch-book and rule and making notes of all sorts of architectural details. This not only gives prac-
tice in sketching, but accumulates a collection of information and teaches him the habit of careful
observation. He learns to keep his ej'es open.

' Professor of Engineering Drawing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, O.

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

He must also be trained in accurate drawing with instruments, meclianical drawing, as distinguished
from freehand drawing. This includes skill in the use of the drawing instruments, a knowledge of the
draftsman's methods of laying out geometrical figures and problems and a thorough acquaintance with
orthographic projection.

A great French architect, M. Viollet le Due, once said, "The architect ought not only to possess a
large accjuaintance \nth descriptive geometry but also to be so familiar with perspective as to be able to
draw a design or parts of a design in e\ery aspect." This statement is as true today as when originally
made more than sLxty years ago. Descriptive geometr\- is the basis of orthographic projection and a
subject of preeminent value for training the constructive imagination, in addition to its constant
practical application on the drawing board. It is a fascinating study but might be found more or less
difficult to read without the aid of an instructor.

Perspective drawing as used by the ordinary artist in representing an object before him, requires
only the observation of a few simple phenomena and rules. As used b>- the architect it becomes a mathe-
matical subject, "Conical Projection," since his problem is not that of sketching an existing building,
but of making a drawing of the exterior or interior of a proposed structure as it will actually appear to
the observer when it is built. He needs this knowledge and facility in drawing in perspective not alone
to show his clients the appearance of the building but, more important, for his own use in studying masses
and proportions. A roof or dome for example will present an entirely different effect when viewed from
the ground than it does on the working drawing used in building it.

The architect thinks on paper, first in freehand sketches, made with a rapid sure stroke, in perspec-
tive or projection as the case requires, then with T-square and instruments. To his client he presents
his ideas usuall}' in the form of sketch plans and pictorial sketches, as these arc more easily understood
by the layman than are working drawings. They often have the suggestion of color added by water-
color or crayon pencils.

To the builder and artisan however he con\eys his ideas and instructions by working drawings, so
called because they can be worked from accurately. These are drawings made to scale, on the princi-
ples of orthographic projection, and containing full dimensions and notes. They are accompanied by
the specifications, a written description of the details of materials and workmanship required, the two
together called the "Plans and Specifications" which form the basis of the contract between owner and
contractor, the architect acting as the owner's representative and agent.

The real architect then sui)plenienls liis drawings and specifications bj' personal supcr\ision of the
work as it progresses, not because the drawings are incomplete, but tlial the expression of indi\iduality
may not be lost by unimaginative practical workmen.

A distinction must be made between an architect and an architectural draftsman. 'i1ie latter is
one who, under the direction of the former, can c\])ress tlu' architect's ideas graphically in smh a way
as to make them clear to the builder. Starting with the preliminary sketches as developed by the archi-
tect he is able to work up the plans, elevations and details into a finished set of drawings ready for the
contractor. The architectural flraftsman with added experience and opportunity may become an
architect; at least it may be said that all architects begin as architectural draftsmen.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

To be fully qualified for his work tin- architectural draftsman needs to have training and experience
in a variety of subjects connected wilh drawing. These might be enumerated somewhat as follows:

1. He must be thoroughly familiar with the principles of Orthographic Projection. This would
include the Relation of \'icws, .Vu.xiliary Projections, Sections, Devclo])ed \'iews. Reflected Views,
Intersections, etc.

2. He must know the Architectural Symbols, and the methods of representing \'arious forms of
construction.

3. He must be ac(|uainted with the History of Architecture. This includes a thorough working
knowledge of the Architectural Orders.

4. He must know the principles of pure and applied design.

5. He must know materials, their strengths, characteristics, limitations and treatment.

6. He must be so familiar with Lettering that he can execute it rapidly and artistically on drawings,
and can apply it correctly and beautifully as design in stone or bronze.

7. He should have a working knowledge of Perspective Drawing, Shades and Siiadows, and
Rendering.

(The skilled use of Perspective and of making rendered drawings has become something of a
specialist's work and in larger offices there is usually one man \\ho is emjiloyed on this class of
work alone.)

The student should be reminded that architectural design and drafting are inseparable. Architectural
drawing is not simply a mechanical operation nor a subject to be learned separately. The subject of
architectural composition and design has been well i)resented in numerous books, and has only incidental
reference in the present work but it must be understood that a knowledge of composition and style is
essential to successful drafting.

In this book the Author, working from a combined experience as a practicing architect and a teacher
of drawing, has brought together those fundamental subjects in drawing that should be studied by the
prospective architectural draftsman, putting them in such form that they may be at hand for ready
reference as he works over his designs on the board. It is thus both a text- and a reference book. The
beginner will find the course of study outlined on pages 143, 144 and 145 a useful guide in its use as a
textbook. As indicated in the preface, the covering of the entire range of architectural drawing in one
volume is not practically possible. The necessarily brief treatment of some of the subjects suggests the
desirability of supplementing them by concurrent study. The draftsman already familiar with the
elementar}' subjects will, it is believed, find the material as presented of much value in his practical work.

PLATE 1

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS

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PERSPECTIVE

FIG-2 I^OMETP4C

FIG-5 OBLIQUE

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION DRAWINGS

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FP.QNT VIEW PxlGH'l

LEFTJIDE
I IGUKE-4

TOP VIEW

FRQNT VIEW

ARTICLE I

GRAPHIC METHODS OF REPRESENTATION

Plates I and 2

Before starting the architectural drawing proper, one must be familiar with the two general methods
of representing an object having three dimensions (length, width and height) on the sheet of paper
which has onh- two dimensions (length and width).

One method is by Pictorial Drawings or pictures and the other is by Orthographic Projection
Drawings.

To illustrate by a simple object, a brick is represented in the two above mentioned ways.

There are three kinds of pictorial drawings in common use which will be treated of at length under
other headings. Only their distinguishing characteristics will be pointed out here.

Figure i on Plate i is a Perspective drawing of the brick in which it will be noticed that all except
the vertical lines come together at what are known as vanishing points. The vertical lines on the brick
are drawn vertically here. This is the way we actually see an object.

Figure 2 is an Isometric drawing of the brick, the characteristic of which is that all except the
vertical lines of the brick are drawn toward the right or left at an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal.
The vertical lines are drawn vertically here as in the Perspective.

Figure 3 is an Oblique drawing of the same object. In this all vertical lines remain vertical as in
the others. The lines running lengthwise of the brick remain horizontal and those running from front
to back are drawn upward or downward at any desired angle, usually 30 or 45 degrees with the horizontal.

These pictorial drawings each show three sides of the object, but in each of them either the edges are
foreshortened or else some sides do not show in their true shape. This is what makes it impracticable
to work from pictorial drawings.

So as to avoid these distortions the method of Orthographic Projection is used in making working
drawings.

An Orthographic Projection drawing of the brick would consist of one drawing representing what
would be seen by looking straight at the front of the brick, one drawing as if looking straight down on
top of the brick, and a third drawing as if looking straight at the end of the brick. These three drawings
would be arranged on the paper as in Fig. 4.

If a drawing of the bottom is required it should be placed directly below the front view, etc.

It will be seen now that the Orthographic Projection drawings show the true shape of the faces and
the true length of the edges.

PLATE 1

METHODS OF REPRESTNTATION

PERSPECTIVE

OF BUILDING

FIG.- 5

OR.THOGR.APH1C

PPspJECTION

DRAWINGS

OF
q THE

EXTEHIOB^

FIG.-6 ROOF PLAN

A A

-o

A A

FIG.-7 LEFT ^IDE ELEV FIG.-6 FRQNT ELEVATION FlG.-7a RIGHT 3IDE ELEV.

ORq;HOGRAPHIC PPQjECTION DP^WING^
OF THE INTERJOfV <- ^ j^

FIG.-^^

CK)35 SECTION

F LOOPv. PLAN

Fia-io

PICTORIAL 5ECT. ^ PLAN

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The architectural draftsnian must Ijc familiar with this method of representation as all working
drawings are made in this way. l''or those who are not fairly well acquainted with it, a study of the
subject will be of \alue at this time.'

.\ building is represented in much the same way as the simple brick. A Perspective drawing of a
simple building is gi\-en in Fig. 5, Plate 2. To show it in orthographic jjrojection, a drawing would be
made as though the observer were looking straight at the front as in Fig. 6; then as though looking
straight at the side in Fig. 7 or 7a, and when looking straight down on to]) of it as in Fig. 8. The first
three would be called "Elevations" and the last a "Roof Plan."

It should be noticed that the right side of the building, Fig. 7a, is drawn to the right of the front
view. The left side. Fig. 7, is drawn to the left of the front view, etc.

If we imagine the building to be cut through i)arallcl to the ground and the upper part removed as
in Fig. 10, and then draw what is seen when looking straight down on the remaining j)art, we shall have
what is called a "Floor Plan;" see ¥ig. loa. It will be noticed that this horizontal section or Plan is
taken at \ar}-ing distances from the ground, when necessary, so that it may go through the features of
the building which are to be shown on the Plan. This imaginary horizontal cut is taken along line A-A
as shown by Figs. 6, 7 and 7a. Compare these with Figs. 10 and loa.

If desired, a vertical section may be cut through from the front to the back of the house, one part
remo\'ed, and the remaining part drawn as in Figs. 9 and 9a. This section may be taken at various
places the same as the plan.

Plans, Elevations and Sections are the three devices which the architect employs to represent a
building in orthographic projection.

The student should get this idea clearly in mind before proceeding with the work. A glance
through the book just now will help him to see what Plans, Elevations, and Sections really look like.
Notice for example the drawings of the Rae Cochran house on Plates 21 to 30.

' Consult list of Reference Books, page 147.

PLATE 3

IN^TF^UMENT^

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ARTICLE II

DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USE

Plate 3

Brief mention will be made here concerning thr drawing instruments and their use.'

Pencil. riu' piMU il is oi course the draftsman's most useful instrument. Without a pencil of the
proper grade, aiul in good condition, a draftsman can not hope to produce a good drawing. Select the
pencil for the work in hand and sharpen it carefully. l""or sketching use a drawing ])encil of grade F; for
average drafting work and lettering use an HB or an H and for \'ery accurate work where fme, sharp
lines are necessary, a 2H or 4H will serve. The draftsman will soon become familiar with the different
grades of hardness of leads and when to use them. Sharpen the pencil to a long tapering point as in
Fig. 12, Plate 3, and keej) the lead sharp by means of the sandpaper pencil ])ointer, Fig. r8. It is
important that the point be kept sharp, as accurate work can not be done with a broad dull lead. By
twirling the pencil between the fingers as a line is drawn, the point will be kept sharji longer than if it
were held in one position as it is drawn along. This is an easy and valuable habit to acquire.

Drawing Board. — This should be a perfectly flat, smooth board of soft wood made in such a way
that it can not warp or split. All edges should be perfectly true and smooth. A board 24 by 30 inches is
a good size for the student although a smaller one maj' be used at first.

T-square. — The T-square, as shown in Fig. 11, is used for ruling horizontal lines only. The head
must be held tightly against the left edge of the board thereby keeping the blade in a horizontal position.
As the head is slid up or down along the board all positions of the blade will be parallel. Rule against
the upper edge of the blade only, and from the left toward the right. A 30-inch blade will work well
with the 24 by 30 inch board.

Triangles. — Two triangles will be needed, a 45-degree triangle as shown in Fig. 15 and a 30-60
degree triangle as in Fig. 16. The first is used in conjunction with the T-square to draw 45-degree and
\ertical lines. The other is for dra\\nng lines at 30 degrees or 60 degrees with the horizontal or vertical.
It too may be used to draw vertical lines. Always draw vertical lines from the bottom toward the top
of the paper. It will be found that, with these two triangles, one may draw lines 15 degrees apart in any
direction.

French Curve. — An irregular or "French" curve, as shown in Fig. 19, is needed for ruling curved
lines other than circle arcs.

Scale. — The architect's scale, which is shown full size in Fig. 27, is one of the most important of the
instruments and the beginner will do well to understand it thoroughly before proceeding. As architec-
tural drawings are of necessity much smaller than the objects which they represent, it is necessary to adopt
a "short foot and inch" with which to do the measuring on the drawing. So the architect has a scale
for this purpose. It is a strip of wood covered with celluloid usually and is di\ided accurately into
spaces which represent feet; these in turn are divided into twelfths, each twelfth representing an inch.
Thus one edge is marked off into spaces of )^ inch each and each space is considered as being a foot.
Then one of these spaces is divided up into twelve parts for the inches. This is called the scale of }i
inch to I foot and is written 's" = 1' ~ o". Notice that the mark (") represents inches and the mark
(') represents feet. The scale shown in Fig. 27 is divided so that >|, }>i, \i and i inch are equal to i
foot.

If we are to draw a building which is 100 feet long by 50 feet high at the scale of J^ inch equals i
foot, our drawing would be actually 12)^ inches long and 6^4 inches high. The beginner will have a

' For a complete discussion consult Reference Books, page 147.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

tendency to think of it in this way which is absolutely wrong and will be found very confusing. Think
of each }i inch as being a small foot and use the scale accordingly. Even though the drawing is quite
small, think of it as being loo feet by 50 feet. This will require a mental effort at first but becomes very
easy with practice.

In a similar manner the scale is divdded so that '^i inch, ii^ indies, and 3 inches each represent
I foot. Thus a drawing of any object, however large, ma}' be made at a scale to fit the desired size of
paper.

Dividers. — The dividers, Fig. 20, are used to step off equal distances or to divide a line or space into
equal parts.

Compasses. — The compasses. Fig. 24, are used to draw circles and circle arcs. They should be
held at the top between the thumb and fore finger and spun around between them as the circle is drawn.
If held by the legs there is a tendency to puU them together or force them apart thus spoiling the circle.
Care must be exercised so that the needle point may not be i)ressed deeply into the paper as this will
result in inaccurate work. Keep the needle and lead of even length by adjusting them when necessary.

Ruling Pen. — This, Fig. 17, is used for ruling lines in ink and is held as shown in Fig 14. It is filled
with ink by placing the cjuill of the drawing ink bottle between the nibs of the pen, when the ink will
run between the nibs. The \Aadth of a line is determined by the adjusting screw on the pen. The pen
should not be filled too fuU, as the ink is likely to drop out or run out quickly when passing across another
inked line. Tr\- the pen on the border of the plate before using it on the drawing. The compass pen
is operated similarly. Always keep the nibs clean outside and never allow ink to dry between them,
as this would rust the pen and clog it up.

Erasers. — For general erasing, a Faber Ruby eraser is very satisfactory as it may be used for both
pencil and ink lines on paper or tracing cloth. The draftsman should have also a piece of Art Gum for
cleaning off light lines or soiled places.

Thumb Tacks. — Use small thumb tacks. Fig. 13, for fastening the paper to the board; the large ones
are more expcnsi\e and less satisfactory to use. Always press the tacks firmly down, as it is the head,
rather than the pin, which holds the paper in place.

Paper. — The architect finds use for several kinds of paper in his work.

DetaU pai)er is a hea\-y paper used for the drawing of building details. It may be had in sheets or
in rolls. The rolls vary in width from 36 to 54 inches and usually contain from 10 to 50 yards. A 36-
inch roll may be cut,without waste, into sheets 36 by 26, 26 by 18, 18 by 13, 13 by 9, or 9 by 6' 9 inches.

Tracing paper is a thin, white, transparent paper for general use where one drawing is to be made
over another. It is much cheaper than detail paper and is ideal for sketches and scale drawings. It
comes in rolls 30 to 50 inches in width and in various lengths.

Water-color paper is used where water-color renderings arc desired. Hicre are several kinds of
good water-color papers, the two in most common use being the Italian " l''abriano" and the English
"Whatman" paper. These are finished in three fjualitics, hot pressed (smoolli surface), cold pressed
^medium surface), and rough. The hot pressed is best for fine line work, the cold pressed for average
rendering, and the rough for water-color sketches or bold work. The sheet sizes vary from 13 by 17
to 35,'^ by 56 inches. The Imperial or 22 by 30-inch size is i)robably best for student work.

Bristol board is a cardboard for use in pen, pcnc il, or water-color rendering. There are two surfaces,
the smooth f(;r |)en and ink, and the medium for i)encil and for water-color. The board is made in a
number of sizes and weights.

Ink.— iJrawing ink is a heavy "India ink" especially i)rei)ared for this work. It comes in bottles
with a fjuili in the cork for use in filling the i)ens.

Lettering Pens. Sec llu- arlit Ic on lettering.

ARTICLE III

GEOMETRIC METHODS

Plates 4 and 5

Only those geometric solutions which the draftsman will be most likely to need in his work are
given here.'

To divide a line A-B into two equal parts, Fig. 28, Plate 4, set the compasses at a radius larger than
one-half of the line and with first A and then 5 as a center, draw intersecting arcs lightly at C and D.
Draw a li^ht straight line from C to D. This will bisect A-B.

To divide a line E-F into any number of equal parts, say seven, Fig. 29, draw a light line slanting
in an>- convenient direction, such as E-G. Now lay the scale along E-G and mark off seven equal parts
using any convenient length as a unit, say seven-eighths, seven-quarters, seven-halves or seven inches.
From the last mark, " 7, " draw a light line to F; then from each mark on line E-G, draw lines parallel to
■j-F and cutting line E-F. These last lines will divide line E-F into seven equal parts.

To divide the space between two lines into any number of equal parts, say five, "Fig. 30, lay the
scale with the zero end on one line and swing the other end around untO any multiple of live coincides
with the other line. In the illustration % inch has been chosen as the unit. Mark off the five units
along the scale and through each mark draw a line parallel to the two given lines. These will divide
the space equally into live parts. This method is very valuable in laying out stair steps, etc.

To draw a perpendicular to a given line at a given point, Fig. 3 i , lay either triangle with the hypothe-
nuse along the given line as shown by the dotted lines and place the T-square blade against one side of
it as indicated. Now hold the T-square firmly and turn the triangle around, keeping its square corner
against the T-square blade, then slide it along the blade until the hypothenuse passes through the given
point, when the required perpendicular may be drawn against the hypothenuse of the triangle.

To draw lines parallel to any given line L-M, Fig. 32, place the triangle against the line Z,-Af as
shown and place the T-scjuare blade against the triangle. Holding the T-square in this position, slide the
triangle along to positions as shown by dotted lines and any number of lines may thus be drawn parallel
to the original line L-M.

' If other problems are met, consult "Kidder," The .\rcliitects' and Builders' Poclict Book.

PLATE 4

GEOMETRIC METHODS

/
/

4 FIG- 2 8

i>^/'

FIG-JO

FIG.-J)1

FIG.-J-l-

Perpenc/icufar
bf sec far

FIG.-J3

ARririTKCTURAL DRAWING

To bisect any angle .V,(^ t\ I'ig- ,^3. Plate 4, sol l he compass at any convenient radius" a" and with
O as a center draw arcs at .V and P lightly. With .V and then /' as centers and the same radius "6"
from either center, draw the arcs intersecting at Q. Through O and Q draw the bisector.

To divide the circumference of a circle into six equal parts, Tig. 34, Plate 4, set the dividers equal
to the railius and steji olT the jiarls directly, or use the 30-degree triangle as shown in the illustration.

To draw tangent circle arcs, Fig. 35, Plate 4. The point of tangency of two circle arcs is always on
a line joining the centers of the two arcs, see lines A-B and A-C. First locate the centers, then connect
them by straight lines as indicated, then swing the circle arcs stopping each exactly at its tangent
])()int. Notice that the distance between centers is equal to the sum or the difference of the radii of the
circle arcs as the case may be.

To find the center for a given circle or circle arc, Fig. 36, Plate 4, draw any two chords and then
draw their perpendicular bisectors by the method of Fig. 28. These bisectors will intersect at the
required renter if the work is carefully done.

To draw the arc of a circle when given the chord A-B and the rise C-D and when the center of the
circle is not on the board. Fig. 37, Plate 5, first draw E-F through D parallel to A-B; then draw A-II
and B-K perpendicular to A-B. Draw A-D and D-B then draw A-E perpendicular to A-D and B-F
peqxMidicular to D-B. Now divide A-II, B-K, E-D, D-F, A-C and C-B into the same number of e(]ual
parts (in this case we have chosen six). Draw lines connecting the points as shown and draw the circle
arc through their intersections.

To draw a true ellipse having the length of the major and minor axes given, Fig. 38, Plate 5, mark
off on a strip of paper a length A-B ecjual to one-half of the minor axis and A-C equal to one-half of the
major axis. Now move this "trammel," as it is called, into successive positions, always keeping point
B on the major axis and point C on the minor axis. When in each of these positions, mark location of
point .1 by a dot. After locating enough of these points, draw the ellipse through them with a French
curve.

To draw a true ellipse by concentric circles. Fig. 39, Plate 5, draw first the major axis D-E then the
minor axis F-G intersecting at center //. Then with // as a center draw a circle of radius II-D and another
of radius II-F. Divide these two circles into the same number of parts by drawing lightly the radial lines
from //. From the intersections of each radial line with the circles, draw the short lines parallel to
D-E and F-G as shown. Where these last lines intersect will be points on the ellipse. Notice that each
radial line will fix two points on the ellipse. Locate as many points as accuracy demands.

To draw an approximate ellipse by the three center method, Fig. 40, Plate 5, la}- off from the end
of the major axis the distance L-K equal to the radius chosen for the end of the ellipse. Locate A^ the
same distance from M on the minor axis as K is from L and draw K-A^. Draw the perpendicular bisector
of K-N until it intersects the minor axis at O. Draw a line through O and K to P. With K as a center

PLATE 5

GEOMETRIC METHODS

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

and radius K-L, draw the circle arc Q-L-P forming the end of the eUipse. Then with O as a center and
radius 0-P, draw the circle arc P-M-S forming the top of the ellipse. Complete the figure similarly.
It will be founil thai 1)\' this method the ellipse will often be much distorted.

To draw an approximate semi-ellipse by the five center method, l"ig. 41, Plate 5. Having drawn
the major axis A"-// and the semi-minor axis i'-D, complete the rectangle E-F-G-II-E. Draw E-C, and
then F-B perjx'ndicular to E-C and intersecting E-II at O. Lay off D-S ecjual to D-C and with S-II as a
diameter draw the semi-circle S-L-H. Measure D-T equal to K-L then with 5 as a center and a radius
B-T describe an arc. With E and H as centers and a radius equal to A-D describe intersecting arcs at
.V and .1/. Through these points and center B draw lines B-Q and B-R. With O as a center and radius
0-E draw arc E-P. Then with .V as a center and radius .V-P draw arc P-Q. Then with 5 as a center
and radius B-Q draw arc Q-C-K. Complete the ellipse similarly.

To draw a Tudor or pointed arch, Fig. 42, Plate 5, lay off the desired width or span yi-B and the
height or rise C-D. Select any desired radius for the small circle arc, say A-F and locate F and G.
With F as a center and radius F-G swing an arc cutting the center line at E. Draw line F-E produced to
meet a vertical line dropped from point G to locate //. With A as a center and radius F-H describe an
arc; then with C as a center and a radius ecjual to A-F plus F-H, describe the small intersecting arc
which locates point A". Draw line A'-A produced through L. Now with A as a center and radius A-F
draw arc A-L, then with A' as a center and radius A^-A draw the arc L-C. Complete the arch similarly.
This method produces the best arch when the radius of the smaller arc is equal to about one-fourth of
the span but will work for other radii.

To draw a regular pentagon when given the distance from the center to a point, Fig. 43, Plate 5,
draw the vertical and horizontal axes A-B and C-D intersecting at center E and draw the circumscribing
circle. Then locate A, the middle point of C-E and with this as a center and a radius F-A, describe an
arc cutting C-D at G. Then with A as a center and a radius A-G, swing the arc which locates point II
on one side of the circle and point / on the other side. Then with H and / as centers and radius A-H,
locate / and A'. Connect A-H-K-J-I-A to form the pentagon.

To draw a regular hexagon proceed according to the method given on Plate 4 for dividing the circle
into six equal parts. Connect the points on the circle using the 30-60 degree triangle.

To draw a regular octagon. Fig. 44, Plate 5, first draw the circumscribing circle with a diameter
equal to the distance across points of the octagon. Draw the vertical and horizontal diameters and two
others at 45 degrees with these. Connect the points where these lines cut the circumference of the
circle.

To draw a circular intersection between two straight lines A-B and C-D, Fig. 45, Plate 5, draw
E-F parallel to A-B and at a distance from A-B equal to the radius R of the connecting arc; then draw
G-H similarly. Where these two lines intersect will be the center for the circle arc.

ARTICLE IV

PRELIMINARY SKETCHES

Plates 6 to I 8

The drawings which the architect first produces tor his cUent are called preliminary sketches. They
are the product of his preliminary study of the problem and serve as a basis for further study by both
parties. The preliminary sketches consist of the principal plans accompanied by either the elevations
or a perspective of the exterior. They sometimes include sections through the building to show parts of
the interior. See Plate 2. These drawings are usually done in a sketchy manner but show clearly the
general scheme.

They are made at a scale of ig, i fe or 1^2 inch ecjual to i foot and sometimes not to any scale at all,
in which case only the proportions are watched.

The plan of the building is the first preliminary to be worked out. The walls are usually repre-
sented in this drawing simply by single lines, allowance being made of course for the wall thickness when
rooms are dimensioned on the sketch. While developing the plan, the elevation should be kept in
mind to bring about the desired result. The client usually furnishes the architect with a general idea of
the style of elevation he wishes and sometimes with the general arrangement of the plan.

The elevations are sketched rather roughly at first until an approximate scheme has been developed.
Windows are often indicated here just b}- dark spots of the desired proportions; cornices and mouldings
are indicated by drawing the shadows which they cast, etc. See Plate 6. Most designers work the plan
and elevations along together until a satisfactory result is attained.

After this stage is reached, a pictorial drawing of the exterior is sometimes made, usually in perspec-
tive. This is then rendered by casting the shadows and often by showing the natural colors of the mate-
rial in the building and its surroundings. The picture is made because it is usually diflficult for the client
to understand a direct elevation, whereas the picture is easily legible. If these preliminary sketches
are to be submitted in competition with the work of other architects, as is frequcnth' the case with
sketches of jjublic buildings, the rendering becomes a very important part of the work and is often done
by artists who make this their profession.

To go about the preparation of preliminary sketches intelligently, the designer must know the
amount of money to be spent and must become acquainted with the needs and preferences of his client.
For example, in case of a residence, this means a knowledge of the members of the family to be housed
and, to an extent, the likes, dislikes and needs of each. Then the general manner of living, the number
of servants, the amount of entertaining done, etc., will all have a bearing on the design. A house to
suit this family must also be made to fit the site or location. This means that the designer must become
famihar with the site and its surroundings. If the house is to be built on very uneven ground, a survey
should first be made by a competent surveyor.

Due regard must be given to the orientation or facing of tlu' various rooms of the liou.se.

The living room is the principal room of the house and as such it should be given special considera-
tion. Plan it with a south and west exposure whenever possible, but of course the amcw from the win-
dows will have a bearing on this. The outlook should be pleasant and, if it is not, a shrubbery screen
may be planted to hide the objectionable feature from sight. A generous fireplace seems indispensable
in this room. Place it where the most people can gather round it, not in a corner or where there will l)e a
cross-draft through the room.

The dining room should look to the .south and over a garden, lawn or other jjleasant feature if
possible. It should get the morning sun and should be bright and cheerful.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Kitchen at
Scored by

CUT

SCORE

PLAN 35 POINTS

1 Arrangement of space for equipment

Convenience of stove, table, sink, or other furniture.

2 Storage

Storaf;o panlr> — size and convenience.
Serving pantry — size and convenience.
Refrigerator. Shelving and hooks adequate and convenient to sink. Stove. Table.

Clock.
Distances — if any two (stove, table, sink, pantry) are farther apart tlian 12 feet, cut }i

point for each foot more than 12 feet.
Doors

li;

III

If there are more than 4, cut one point for each.
Outside door direct to covered porch or entry.
If there is no covered porch, cut i point.
Door to dining-room — double swinging if direct.
.Accessibility to front door.
Accessibility to upstairs.
.•Xccessibility to cellar.

If rear stair goes up from kitchen, cut 1, points.
LIGHT AND VENTILATION 25 POINTS

Should be two exposures; if only one cut 5 points.

Glass area = 20 "^r of floor area. Cut i point for each i ^t under 20%.

Window in pantry — cut 2 points if there is none.

Satisfactory daylight at stove, sink, and table.

Score ,5 points for each if good.

Transom over outside door, i point.

If window stools are less than 34" from floor cut i point.

Satisfactory artificial light at stove, sink, and table, 3 points each.

Ventilating hood or tlue. i point.

FLOORS AND W.ALLS lo POINTS

1 Floor — resilient and grease proof

Hardwood, monolith, or linoleum are O. K.
Cut for cracks, soft wood, carpet, etc.

2 Walls

Light in color, cheerful and sanitary.
Cut for violations of above requirements.
•? Woodwork

Cut I point for dust-catching mouldings and projections.
Cut I point for wood wainscot.
EQUIPMENT 30 POINTS

1 Stove — adequate size and condition

If oven is less than 10" from floor, cut i point per inch.

If there is no boiler, cut 2 points.

If there is no thermometer, cut i point.

2 Sink

Enamel or porcelain are O. K.

Cut two points for uncomfortable lieight.

Cut for iron, tin, etc., 3 points.

Double drain-board; if single, cut 3 points.

If splash board is wood, cut two points.

3 Table

Size — Cut I point if smaller than 6 square feet.
Height — Cut i point if uncomfortable.

4 Refrigerator

Size, material, condition.

5 Fircless cooker

6 Chair and stool

Total

If no water in kitchen, cut 40 points.
If no hot water in kitchen, cut 20 points.
If kitchen is used as laundry, cut 15 points.

Remarks

Suggestions for improvement

PLATE 6

■JUt-tfifa— ra^tim

. ^^Ijyj^,-^

Ai\

liU

y']

f/<.s-

w^'

**•-■_:' "*

y !->>■*»• ">

; ■-»

ARCIiriF.CI IRAI. DRAWING

The kitclicn is ihe work shop of llic liousc iuul musl be very carefully studied to be successful. It
is best placed at the northeast corner of the house. The many points which demand attention in this
room are suggested in the accompanying Kill luii Scori' ("aid, which is used in the Drawing Department
at The Ohio State I'niversity. \Mu'n i^hinninj,^ a kilihen, ihe result should be checked carefully with
this reminder.

The bed rooms should be well lighted and ventilated. Have windows in two walls whenever possi-
ble, {o alTord a cross circulation of air. Generous clothes closets are very much in demand.

In all rooms careful attention must be given to the providing of space for the furniture. To aid in
this, the following approximate furniture dimensions are given.

Tables are about 29 inches high and the top of a dining table is about 42 to 48 inches wide by vary-
ing lengths.

Chair seats are about 18 inches square and 18 inches from the lloor.

Rocking chairs are about 20 inches deep by 24 inches wide.

The kitchen stove projects from the wall about 26 inches and is 36 or more inches in width.

A grand piano is 6 by 5 feet. An ui)right piano is 51^ by 2},^ feet.

A lounge or davenport is about 30 inches by 6 to 7 feet.

Double beds are about 5 feet wide, three-quarter beds are about 4I4 feet wide and single beds 3
to 4 feet wide. Beds are about 6 feet 10 inches long.

Bureaus and chiiToniers extend about 18 inches from the wall and \-ary in width from 3 feet uj).

For plumbing fixtures see Plate 19.

The preliminary sketch is decidedly the work of a designer and an original sketch can not be success-
fully produced without a knowledge of architectural composition and styles or an artistic sense of the
litness of things, both being necessary for the best results. The student, however, can at once learn how
to make the necessary drawings and his ability as a designer will then be the result of constant study
and development of his talents as he works along.

In developing a scheme it is always well, after a little thought, to get something down on paper and
then to alter this until satisfied, rather than to attempt to think out the finished scheme in one's mind
and then consider the first drawing made as being complete. The best results will be gained by putting
down each step in the development as it is thought out. To facilitate this the designer makes use of
transparent tracing paper. Thus sketch after sketch may be made one o\er the other for each alteration
or addition, and in the end, a complete record of the development is preserved.

The current architectural magazines' furnish many suggestions for plans and elevations of various
classes of buildings which may be followed by the student in his practice sketches.

On Plate 76 is given a number of sketch plans and perspectives which may later be developed into
working drawings by the student.

The Frontispiece is a preliminary sketch from the oflfice of Howell and Thomas, Architects, of
Cleveland, Ohio. It is in direct elevation and is a pencil sketch which has been lightly tinted with
crayon, producing a pleasing effect. Notice that \ery few lines of the building have been drawn but
rather the form of the parts is merely suggested in a sketchy manner b\- indicating shadows, etc. The
surrounding trees, lawn and walks are sketched in jjerspective to give depth to the picture.

On Plate 6 are some of the sketches from which was de\-eloj)cd the design of the Cochran residence.
The working drawings of this house are shown on Plates 21 to 30. The photograph on Plate 6 shows
the appearance of the completed house.

' A list of these magazines will be found on page 149.

PLATE 7

PERSPECTIVE

FIG- 46

FIG.-47

3- ELEVATION

(flJPNT VIE-W)

flG.-^l

H 1

L
C

^^^^■^^ H

\ •

VARJATIOM^ DUt TO D(r-M;Rr:NT Po-MTIOtHo or- Tilt: oTATlON POINT.

ARrilTTF.rTrRAI. nR AWING

PERSPIXTIVE DRAWING

Since the ]icrspcctivo drawing of an objcrt shows it as \i would apjK'ar to the eye of the observer,
it is very important tliat the draftsman acquire tlie al)ility to draw and think, in perspective.

As has already been stated he must express his design in a legible manner to his client and he must
also be able to sketch quickh' in persj5ecti\'e those features of his design which he can not readily visual-
ize himself. As he gains a knowledge of drawing in persj^ective he will also acquire the ability to think
in ])erspective which, to the designer, is an asset, the value of which can not be overestimated.

The decided ditTerence between the appearance of the orthographic j)rojection drawing of a building
and the jiicture or perspective, may be seen by comparing the photograph of the Cochran house with the
sketch of the front elevation on Plate 6. This is i)articularly true of roof lines and dormers.

An attempt has been made to keep the explanation as brief as i)ossible and at the same time make
it adequate for the needs of a student at this stage in his progress. '

Theory and Notation. — The student must first become acquainted with the theory of perspective
projectit)n and the notation commonly used in developing these drawings. For example, consider a
brick as being laid down on the ground at some distance from the eye and then imagine a glass plate to
be set up vertically between the eye and the brick as in Fig. 46, Plate 7. This imaginary plate or plane
will hereafter be referred to as the picture plane and marked P-P and its intersection with the ground will
be called the ground Hue and marked (i-L. The location of the eye of the observer is known as the
station point and is marked S. The vertical lines of the object will be drawn vertically always. Any
system of parallel lines on the object will meet at a point called the vanishing point and marked V.
Parallel horizontal lines have their vanishing points on the horizon line. The horizon line is drawn
horizontally, i:)arallel to G-L. Its distance above the ground line is always the same as the distance that
the eye is assumed to be above the ground.

Now imagine lines of sight to be drawn from the station point through the picture plane to the
corners of the brick. Connect the points where these lines pierce the picture plane and the perspective
projection of the brick on the picture plane will be the result.

It will be evident by a glance at Fig. 47 that if the eye (or station point) is elevated farther from
the ground, the projection of the brick on the picture plane will also be raised; then too we can see from
this new station point more of the toj) of the brick than before. The opposite is true when the eye is
placed nearer to the ground. Notice that the projection on the picture plane is smaller than the brick,
because the lines of sight converge as they go from the brick toward the picture plane. If we move the
brick up until one edge is touching the picture plane as in Pig. 48, it is seen that the projection of that
edge is in its true size, but that all of the brick behind the picture plane is projected smaller as before.
From this we gather that measurements can be made only on the ])icture plane or where the picture
plane and the object are in actual contact. In drawing the perspective of a building it is well to place
the front corner against the picture plane so that the vertical distances may be measured along it.

' If further study of the subject is desired, consult one of the handbooks listed on page 147.

PLATE 7

PERSPECTIVE

F IG- 46

fiG.-^y

ii.

_LLJ c

ElG.-^I

VARIATIONS DUL- TO DlftLRTiNT P05IT(0H J Of Tilt. STATION PolIST.

ARCIIITKrTrRAl. DRAWING

Scale. — Perspective drawings arc made U) scale the same as orthographic projection drawings.

Systems. Drawings will he in angular i)erspective when the object is placed at an angle with the
picture jilanc as in Figs. 46, 47 and 48, Plate 7, and in parallel perspective when one face or edge is
])laccd parallel to or else in the jMcturc plane as in Fig. 40. The most pleasing presentation of a building
is usually in angular perspective while the other method gives good results for interiors.

Study. — As a method of study it is suggested that the student follow carefully through the explana-
tion of each figure, understanding fully every statement before proceeding to the next. After he has
studied the operation and fixed each step in his mind he should draw the object in perspective to any
convenient size.

Accuracy. — Since a slight error in draftsmanship would be likely to distort the result badly, great
care must be exercised throughout the work. Keep the pencil needle-sharp and make all measurements
and locate all intersections with the utmost exactness. After a little practice the student will learn
where care is necessary and where it is not so important.

Angular Perspective. — Let the student imagine himself to be looking directly down upon the brick,
picture plane and station point shown in Fig. 48 and draw at the desired scale what he sees as in the
top view or Plan, Fig. 50, and below this, what he sees when looking straight toward the picture plane
as in the front view or Elevation, Fig. 50. In drawing this front view first draw G-L horizontally at a con-
venient place on the paper. Now if the eye is considered as being 5 feet above the ground, the II-L
should be drawn 5 feet above G-L at the scale decided upon and parallel to G-L. The location of the eye
or station point 5 must now be fixed at the desired distance in front of P-P in plan and in the desired
position laterally. This location must be carefully determined as the result depends largely upon it.
Figure 51 shows several perspectives of the same building with the plan in the same position in each case
but with 5 located in various positions. In Fig. 51.^. the station point is placed toward the left. It is
toward the right in b, toward the center and low in c, high in d, at a distance from P-P in e and very
close to P-P in f. B}- making a few rjuick sketches the position of the plan and station point may be
quite accurately determined for the result desired. Thus the designer may imagine himself to be stand-
ing at any jjoint about the building and, by drawing a perspective with this station point, he may learn
exactly what his design will look like when viewed from this position.

From 5, Fig. 50, draw a line parallel to one side of the brick intersecting P-P at v- and one parallel to
the end of the brick touching P-P at v' . These two lines from S must always be 90 degrees apart no
matter what the shape of the object may be. From v' and v'- drop vertical lines to H-L which will locate
the vanishing points F' and F' of the two systems of parallel horizontal lines. Now draw the Hues of
sight from S in plan through P-P to the corners of the brick. Where these lines of sight intersect P-P
drop light lines to the front view. Point i is in G-L because it is on the ground and touching the picture
plane. From point i draw a line toward T'". Measure up from point i a distance equal to the height
of the brick, locating point 2 and from here draw toward F"; then draw line 3-4. Similarly draw
i-,5 2-6, and 4-7 toward F'; then draw 5-6, then 6-7 toward V- and the perspective is complete.

PLATE 8

PLAN

PER5PECT1VE

Fia32 FIG. 33

/•

PtR5PECTIVE

RECTANGULAR, PRISMS
IN ANGULAR^ PERSPECTIVE

— I

HORJZONTAL CII^LF,
IN ANGULAR^ PERSPECTIVE

-I H-

IRREGULAR^ OBJECT
IN ANGULAR. PERSPECTIVE

FIG.34 FIG. ^^7 //

PLAN

ELEVATION

PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE
OF AN OBJECT WITH
R^CTANGU LAR. 4^ IRREGULAR^ PART5

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Objects not Touching the Picture Plane.— To the object shown in Fig. 50 is added a cubical block,
Fig. 52, Plate 8, considering the cube lo be the same height as the brick. Draw the sight lines from 5
to the plan of the cube and from their intersection with P-P drop lines to the front view as before. As
the cube does not touch the picture plane, we can not measure its height directly along any of these
lines. One wa)' of determining this height is to consider one vertical face of the cube as being brought
forward to P-P meeting it at c in plan. In a case like this, line d-e must be brought down parallel to
line 5-1'' or line S-¥- in jilan. Draw from c down to G-L at/. Now line e-f in elevation is in the picture
plane and distances may l)e measured along it. From/ measure uj) the height that point i is from the
ground, marking it at g and from g measure up the height of the cube to //. Draw from g and // to F'
which will give the perspective of face 1-2-3-4. Now draw 1-5, 2-6, and 3-7 toward V'- and then 6-7
toward F". Any part of an object back of the picture plane may be measured and drawn in this manner.

Irregular Objects. — A perspective of the triangular pyramid, Fig. 53, Plate 8, is made in much the
same way as the prism of Fig. 52 with a few exceptions. Draw the plan, locate P-P and 5 and then draw
G-L and Il-L in elevation. Draw the sight lines and droj) light lines to the front view as before. Since
'Ae object is not rectangular in plan, the perspective may be worked out from the two lines j-a and i-b
which are drawn at right angles with each other in plan. The direction of i-a and i-b will determine the
effect of the drawing. Experience and trial will tell just what angle they should make with P-P for the
best result. Having drawn these two lines, draw S-v^ and S-v~ parallel to them and locate F' and F'^
as in Fig. 52. Now in plan draw a line parallel to \-a through apex 4 of the pyramid intersecting P-P
at d and a similar line through corner 3 locating point c on P-P. Droj) from c and d to G-L at e and/
then draw from e toward F^ locating the perspective of corner S. Corner 1 is of course on G-L. Draw
1-V^ and ;-F'. Draw from the plan of 2 parallel to line 1-h, locating point a on Hne 1-a. Find the
perspective of point a on the perspective line 1-V'- and draw from here toward F', locating the perspec-
tive of corner 2. Connect /, 2 and 3 for the perspective of the base of the pyramid. Measure up from
/ to ^, a distance equal to the height of the pyramid. Draw from g toward F-, locating the apex 4 in
perspective. Connect 4 with ;, 2 and 3. Corner 2 might have been found in the same manner as
corners .? and 4.

Perspective of Circle. — A circle may be drawn in perspective, Fig. 54, Plate 8, by "boxing it in,"
drawing the perspective of the "box" or square according to the method of Fig. 52 and then getting the
perspective of a number of points on the circle by the method of locating point 3 in Fig. 53.

Parallel Perspective.- — \^'hen the plan is drawn with one face of the object in or parallel to the
picture jilane as in P"ig. 49, Plate 7, or Fig. 55, Plate 8, the drawing will be in parallel perspective. In
this we ha\'e but one vanishing point and that is in what is known as the center of vision and is on the
horizon line directly opposite the station point. In this figure the sight lines as drawn from S to the
j)lan would cross the front \'iew and so are omitted for a portion of their length. Notice that a part
elevation is drawn to the right. By doing this the height of any part can be obtained by simply pro-
jecting from the elevation across to the perspective. Since the object here is not touching P-P it is
necessary to bring one or more corners forward to P-P so that heights may be measured along them.
The vertical edge 1-2 has been brought forward parallel to S-v^ just as d-e was brought to P-P in Fig. 52.
From point a on P-P drop to G-L at b. Project over from the elevation at the right and locate the height
of the base b-c. Project from b and c toward I'' to locate the perspective of edge 1-2. All edges at
right angles to those whose perspective vanishes in F' will be drawn horizontally or parallel to G-L.
Any isolated points such as point 5 may be located by the method of point 4 in Fig. 53. Locate 3-4
similar to 1-2. etc.

PLATE 5

-J z
U -1 -

o 4: -b3

ARrniTKCTrRAL DRAWING

On Plate 9 is a perspective drawing t)f a portion of the Cochran residence. Some of the construc-
tion lines are shown and only the methods of the previous plate have been employed in working it out.
Notice that the station point has been taken about 6 feet above the ground and just to the left of the
walk. This is the wa>- the house would look if the observer were standing just below the terrace and
looking toward the front door.

As a matter of interest, compare this mechanical perspective with the photograph given on Plate
6. Even though the station point of the camera was much farther away than that of the opposite draw-
ing, and details of the house were altered somewhat in building, the parallel between the two pictures
will be seen to be ciuite close.

The sketchy effect was obtained by first drawing the perspective mechanically with a soft, sharp
pencil and then inking the lines freehand. Notice that the lines of the siding and shingles are not
continuous but are just suggested, as are also the bricks of the base course, the muntins of windows, etc.

As an exercise in perspective the student might use first the simple Tuscan entablature of Plate 63,
then one of the more complicated Orders and finally draw up a perspective of the residence described by
Plates 21 to 30 or some other rather simple building.

It is not always necessary that every little detail of a building be drawn in mechanical perspective.
The main lines must of course be located accurately but the draftsman will soon be able to judge as to
what should be accurately drawn and what may be drawn by eye.

PLATE 10

I50METRIC

TOP

FR.ONT

FIG. 36

FR.ONT

^^IDE

FIG. 37

FIG.39-a FIG. 39-b

FIG. 60

ARCHITECTUR;VL DRAWING

ISOMETRIC DRAWING

While perspective projection is the method of pictorial representation generally used by the archi-
tectural draftsman, he sometimes finds it desirable to draw a quick mechanical picture on which he can
measure most distances directl>-. This can not be done on a perspective as most of the distances are
more or less distorted as has already been seen.

To supply this need of an easily made picture upon which parts may be measured directly, we have
a system of drawing called Isometric Drawing. Although the ability to measure distances on this kind
of a picture is gained, there is somewhat of a loss in pictorial value, as the Isometric drawing does not
show the object exactly as seen by the eye of the observer.

This system then is used where appro.ximate pictorial effect is desired together with the advantage
of measuring distances directly on the picture. Such drawings are found useful to the architect in
making pictorial diagrams of piping systems, etc., where artistic appearance is not a factor. In these
the walls and floors are imagined to have been removed showing only the boilers, tanks, radiators, etc.,
with the connecting pipe lines all in the proper relation to each other. The usual Orthographic Projec-
tion drawing would be inadequate to show clearly and comprehensively such a system as a whole.

This pictorial method is seldom used to represent the building itself except that it is sometimes
satisfactory for framing drawings. See Plate 46.

For an illustration of this method, the brick has again been used and is considered to be 8 inches
long, 4 inches wide and 2 inches high. Fig. 56, Plate 10. First it is turned so that the 2 by 8-inch face
and the 2 by 4-inch face make angles of 45 degrees with the picture plane, Fig. 57; then tilted up or down
into either position shown in Fig. 58a or 58b so that edges A-B, A-C and A-D each make an angle of 1 20
degrees with the other. These lines are known as Isometric Axes and all lines parallel to them are
Isometric Lines.

Of course edges A-B, A-C, etc., are foreshortened when the brick is turned into this position but
since this distortion is not great, all isometric lines are drawn in their true length. Accurate measure-
ments may be made only along or parallel to these isometric lines. Thus in Fig. 58a or 58b every visible
edge of the object is shown in its true length just as in Fig. 56.

If A-D is drawn vertically, A-B and A-C will make angles of 30 degrees with the horizontal, either
up as in Fig. 59a or down as in Fig. 59b.

Now to represent the brick in isometric projection. Fig. 60, first draw the isometric axes like Fig.
59a (if it is desired to look down toward the top of the brick) or like Fig. 59b (if a view from below is
needed); then in Fig. 60 measure along A-D 2 inches to point /, then along A-B 8 inches to point 2
and along A-C 4 inches to point 3. Draw lines I-4 and 3-6 parallel to A-B with the 30 degree triangle
and T-square; then draw 1-3 and 2-6 parallel to A-C. Draw 3-5 and 2-4 vertically and the isometric
drawing will be completed. This is the method of drawing any rectangular prism or combination of
rectangular prisms.

PLATE ii

ISOMETRIC AND OBLiaUE

^^o

l'*--...^

_— ^^

C I

FIG. 62-0

f I G. 63 b

FIG. 64

AKCIIITKCTrkAl. DRAWING

If an object is irre.uular, imagino a traiisjiari'iit rectangular l)()x to he placed around it, the box then
drawn in isonutrii and llu' object drawn in the box. 'Phis has been done in Fig. 6i, Plate ii, where the
surrounding box is lettered A-B-C-D-R-F-G. Make the rectangular box touch as much of the object
as possible; thus the base of this object touches the box all around and the top K-L-M-X lies in the toj) of
the box making both of these easy to draw. Locate corner Q, which lies in the top of the base, by meas-
uring from J to T the distance l'-(^ that ])oint Q is from face A-D-E-F; then draw a 30-degree line from
T and measure along it to Q tlic distance that Q is from the back face C-D-E of the box. Draw Q-P
then P-0 with the ,v>degree triangle and T-square, the length of each being measured directly as they
are both isometric lines. Connect A', L and X with P, O and Q and the drawing will be completed.

An isometric circle may be made by first drawing a circle with the compass and putting it in a
square, Fig. 62a, Plate 11, then drawing the isometric of the scjuare and then the isometric circle by
means of coordinate lines in the isometric square. This has been done in Fig. 62b where the points
A, D and 6" \\a.\c been located by the lines A-B and A-C, D-F. and D-F, G-II and G-I, all of which are
isometric lines whose lengths were taken from Fig. 62a and laid off in Fig. 62b.

An approximate isometric circle may be drawn by first drawing the isometric square as before, then
the perpendicular bisectors of each side as in Fig. 63a, b and c. It will be seen that these bisectors inter-
sect at B, D, E and F. With 5 as a center and a radius B-G, draw the circle arc from G to H. With E
as a center and a radius E-II draw a circle arc from // to /. Then with D and F as centers complete
the isometric circle. Figure 63a is a horizontal circle while Figs. 63b and 63c are vertical circles.

OBLIQUE DRAWING

In isometric drawing the objectionable foreshortening of lines which is found in perspective is
eliminated, but the distortion of shape still remains. An object with an irregular or a circular face is
rather difficult to draw in isometric just as in perspective. This is noticed in Fig. 62b. To escape this,
the method called Oblique Projection may be used. Here the object is considered as having the front
face in or parallel to the picture plane and the view taken from a point to one side and slightly above or
below the object as in Fig. 64, Plate 11. That face which is parallel to the picture plane is drawn just
the same as in orthographic j)rojection and in this lies the \alue of the method, for circles may be drawn
with the compass, etc. Thus face A-B-C-D-E, Fig. 64, Plate 11, is drawn in its true shape. Then the
lines A-F, B-G, C-H, etc., are drawn toward the right or left and upward or downward, in any convenient
direction, usually at 30 or 45 degrees with the horizontal, and are shown in their true length as in
isometric.

The following reminders will serve as a guide to produce the best results:

Where there is an irregular face, place it parallel to the picture plane.

Place the long dimension of the object parallel to the picture plane.

Where the irregular face is the short side of the object, neglect the rule about the long dimension.

PLATE 12

CONVENTIONAL SHADOWS

FIG. 65

THE CONVENTIONAL RAY OF LIGHT

FIG. 65-a

Top

Front

i^hf /^jj

i>/c

-Horizonta/ Parf

Top

^1 ^Li^frf Ra/J •

j,^ ^ /er//ca/ Parf \

Of Macfoiv

i±^

Fronf

5ide

5HAD0W OF VERTICAL LINE ON HOR.IZONTAL (J*- VERTICAL PLANE5

-Lyhf l^oyj

'^M.

J/7ac/on^

Front

Iff/?/ ^O/J

B-ofi/e

6 HADOW OF VERTICAL LINE ON HORIZONTAL MOULDING

Front

l/o/)f ^ayj.

j/ope ofji/rface

.SHADOW OF VERTICAL LINE ON A 6LOPING SURFACE

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

SHADES AND SHADOWS

The drawings thus far considered are what are known as Hne drawings and, because of the fact that
they are made up of lines alone, they lack any effect of depth or modeling. This may be gained only
by representing the play of light and shade on the Aarious surfaces. The casting of shadows puts the
third dimension into the otherwise flat drawing by indicating j^rojections, recesses, mouldings, etc., and
thereby livens it up and gives an impression of the third dimension which is entirely lacking in line
drawings.

The elements of a building are pleasing to the eye almost solely because of the shadows they cast.
Everyone has noticed the dull, flat appearance of even the most beautiful building on a "grey day" and
then how interesting it becomes in the bright sunlight. The cornice, for instance, produces a broad band
of shadow across the top of the wall; the details of the cornice break this shadow up into interesting
variations making of it a richly mottled band of color; see Plates 15, 16 and 17. The mouldings of less
projection trace narrower lines of shadow across the wall and the spots of ornament enrich the surfaces
by their wealth of light and shade; see Plate 75. Window and door openings cause dark areas to appear
in the composition. These must be carefully considered as they appear prominently in the scheme.
Therefore the architect studies the details of his design not alone for beauty of outline but also for the
effect of light and shadow that they will produce.

Here again the artistic sense of the designer must be brought into play, but the student can at once
learn the mechanical processes by which shadows are determined.

Shadows may be cast either on orthographic projection drawings or on perspectives. The method
will be explained in orthographic projection, and the perspective shadows will then be a matter of
application of the method. After mastering the principles as here given, the draftsman will be able to
cast many shadows with reasonable accuracy by simply visualizing them, and then drawing them with-
out the complete mechanical construction. Plates 15, 16 and 17 are given to aid in casting the shadows
of the Orders of Architecture in the last mentioned manner. Approximate work of this kind should not
be attempted until a thorough acquaintance with the subject has been made.

Shadows are cast mechanically by drawing lines (representing rays of light) down past the object
which causes the shadow to that upon which the shadow is cast. That part of the object which is
turned away from the source of light is said to be in shade and that part of another object from which
the light rays are kept by the first is said to be in shadow. The shade line is the line which separates
the shaded from the lighted parts of an object and the shadow line is the outline of the shadow. Thus it
may be seen that the shadow line is the shadow of the shade line. Some parts of a complicated object
may be in shade and other parts of the same object in shadow because of the contour of its surface.
This is true of the Attic Ionic base of Plate 14.

The sun is of course assumed to be the source of light for most of the architectural shades and
shadows. Although the sun's rays are not exactly parallel, they may be assumed to be so in all practi-
cal work. A definite position of the source of light is also fixed. For conventional shadows the sun is
imagined to be located in front of, above and toward the left of the object, so as to throw the conventional
light rays down parallel to the body-diagonal of a cube as in Fig. 65, Plate 12. With the front face of the
cube toward the observer, the front, top and side views of this body-diagonal will appear as 45-degree
lines, Fig. 65a. This makes the conventional light rays easy to draw mechanically and produces shad-

PLATE 12

CONVENTIONAL 5HADOWS

FIG. 65

FIG. 65-a

THE CONVENTIONAL RAY OF LIGHT

Front

£>

FIG. 66

Top

Front

/yA/ ^yj

b,c.

b/c

— \

- Horizon^of Parf
Ofi Jhadoi*'

Top

6^ /-l-i9f7f Hayj ^

b^^t^erZ/co/ fbrf \

Of Mac/otv

Front

5ide

5HAD0W OF VER.TICAL LINE ON HOUIZONTAL (}^ VERTICAL PLANE5

Front

lia/jf ^ayj

J/?(^cr'on^

iyh/ f^oyj

B-ofi/e.

6 HADOW OF VERTICAL LINE ON HORJZONTAL MOULDING

Front

l/y/i/ %7yj-

j/qoe 0/ Jor/ace

.SHADOW OF VERTICAL LINE ON A 6L0PING SURFACE

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

ows equal in depth to the projection of the object which casts them. Thus a cornice shadow will be
just as wide as the cornice projection, Plate 15. This fact, if kept in mind, will simplify many problems.

Shadows of Points and Lines.— To cast the shadow of a point upon a given surface draw a con-
ventional ray through the point and to the surface. Where this ray strikes the surface is the required
shadow of the point. This is the fundamental operation in all shadow casting, but its application is
not always easy, therefore the following detailed helps are given for various cases.

Where the shadow of a straight line is to be cast on a plane surface, Pig. 66, the shadow of each end
of the line is located and these points connected to give the shadow of the line. If the given line or the
receiving surface is curved, a number of these shadow points are determined and the shadow of the line
drawn through them.

In Figs. 66 and 67 of Plate 12 are shown both pictorially and in orthographic projection, a vertical
line casting a shadow on horizontal and vertical jjlanes. It will be readily seen that the shadow of but
one point a in Fig. 66 is necessary to determine the shadow of the line, while in Fig. 67 two points b and
c must be used.

When a vertical line casts a shadow on a horizontal moulding (or a horizontal line on a vertical
moulding), as in Fig. 68 on Plate 12, the front view of that shadow is the same as the profile of the
moulding. This fact, if remembered, will make short work of many problems which would otherwise be
quite tedious. A similar labor saver is shown in Fig. 69 on Plate 12. Here it is seen that the shadow of a
vertical line on a sloping surface, when viewed from the front, takes the same angle as the slope of the
surface. This is useful when working with the shadows of chimneys and dormers on sloping roofs.

PLATE 13

SHADES AND SHADOWS

J^uar'^

'-'*' ^(7/^3

'^ 5° lane

Jh6<^e .'jne

FIG. 70

6HADE ^5HADOWOF CYLINDEI^

FIG.71-a

Jhac/e

J.hac/e —

yow

Fron
;;^. VieW

-f/Opje

~-J.^ 7c/o*v of

FIG. 71

6HADE $/ 6HADOW OF CONE

Top
View

Apf.K

.5HADE ^SHADOW OF 6PHER.E

Front
View

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Cylinders, Cones and Spheres. — If a circle is jxirallel to a plane surface, its shadow on that surface
is circular, and if it is t)bli([uc to the surface, its shadow is an ellipse. This is true of circle shadows on
any plane surface and is illustrated in the drawing of the three objects on Plate 13. A jjractical way to
draw the shadow when it is elliptical is to first draw a s(iuare enclosing the circle which casts the shadow,
then locale llie sliadow of the square (as in Fig. 70 and 70a) and in it sketch tlic ellipse, being careful
that it touches and is tangent to the sides of the parallelogram at their center points, a, h, r and d.

Cylinder. - After the circular or elliptical shadows of tJie ends of the right circular cylinder have been
drawn, the straight tangent lines are drawn completing the outline of the shadow. The shade lines of
the cylinder arc found by drawing the 45-degree tangent lines as noted in llie lop view. Fig. 70a, and
locating the tangent points at c and/. Projecting down to the front view from these points will locate
the front view of the shade line.

Cone. — The shadow of a conical object is determined by first locating the shadows of the apex and
the base and then connecting the former with the latter by tangent lines as in Figs. 71 and 71a. The
shade lines of the cone are found by projecting from the tangent points g and // in the top view, back
(at 45 degrees) to the base atj and k, then connecting these points with the ape.x.

Sphere. — The shadow of a sphere is determined by the use of a cylinder of tangent light raj'S as in
Fig. 72. Since this is a rather tedious process, a shorter method is given; see Fig. 72a. In the top view
draw the 45-degree tangent lines through m-m, and /-/, and a center line through n-o,, light]}-. Draw
line m-l through p (at 45 degrees). Draw m-o at an angle of 30 degrees with m-l, locating 0. Lay off
p-n ecjual to p-o. This gi\es the major and minor axes of the elliptical shade line in the top view. Draw
the shade line by the method of Fig. 38, Plate 5. Next on the front view draw the 45-degree liner's'
through center />'. Locate /' b}- drawing s'-t' at an angle of 30 degrees with r'-s', then lay off p'-n' equal
to p'-l' and draw the ellipse as in the top view. The shadows of points m, I, 0, and n are found by draw-
ing conventional light rays through the points in the top and front views, locating m^, l„ 0, and «„ and
drawing the elliptical shadow line in the top view by the trammel method. If the shadow is cast on
an irregular or a curving surface, the shadows of a number of points of the shade line may be found and
the shadow line drawn through them.

The methods thus far explained are known as oblique projection methods. They are difficult of
application where double curved surfaces are to be dealt with. For the solution of a problem involving
such surfaces, the slicing method is found useful; This method, while not dii^licult, necessitates a great
deal of ver\- careful work for an accurate shadow.

260982

PLATE i4

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Slicing Method. — Through the column base on Plate 14 a scries of imaginary vertical cutting planes
(see also upper left-hand corner of plate) is passed and the lines which these planes cut on the surface of
the object are drawn. The cutting planes are passed at 45 degrees in the plan view and consequently
contain a number of the conventional rays. Then the lines of intersection are drawn on the elevation
(see also upper right-hand corner of plate). These lines of intersection are found by drawing the pro-
jections of a series of circular lines on the surface of the base, finding where these circles go through the
cutting planes as at a, h, c, d, e, etc., in the plan and projecting up to the corresponding lines at a', b',
c', d', e', etc., on the elevation. Locate enough points to accurately fix the lines of intersection. Where
the cutting planes pass through a moulding of circular section, as the upper two members of this base,
the line of intersection with that moulding wiU be an ellipse, and may be drawn by the method of Fig.
38, Plate 5, after the two axes or half-axes have been located, as m'-n' and k'-l' on the elevation. The
cutting planes may be passed tlirough wherever lines of intersection are thought necessary.

Now in the elevation draw the 45-degree tangent lines as shown. These light rays will locate
points of tangcncy and intersection through which the shade and shadow lines may be drawn.

Other Shadows. — Some of the shadows of a building are more difficult to draw as, for example,
those of the Corinthian capital and, except for widely isolated cases, these shadows need not be accu-
rately determined. Shadows of the Doric and Ionic Orders are given on Plates 15 and 16. Plate 17
is an example of student work in casting shadows of the Corinthian Order. These will serve as an
approximate guide when shadows of the Orders are needed.

PLATE 15

_.S2a^ZSES

-'"^MinMit-'

:3Z

rrc

F i f

: fl

4-1-

„a,i^-isi 1

I '

^^^^

-wmm,

PLATE (6

PLATE 17

St^j^-vtS^V

finn iriFim nn n n

iCODINTniAN

ffrnin'ii

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

RENDERING

Architectural drawings may be rendered or colored in a number of different mediums according to
the result desired. Most comnK)n among these are pencil, crayon and water-color. The shadows, the
relative color of materials, and the environment of the building may thus be indicated either in mono-
tone or in their natural colors. The medium first used for the rendering of school problems is water-
color in monotone washes. These washes are of two kinds, the smooth and the settled wash. In the
first the color dries leaving a smooth e\en tint while in the latter, if apjjlied quite wet and allowed to
stand undisturbed, a mottled effect is secured. India ink is perhaps the best color for smooth, soft
grey washes, while Charcoal Gray, French Blue and other combinations will produce the settled wash.

Material. — The material needed is as follows: — India ink, which comes in sticks, a slate ink slab
in which the ink is ground by rubbing it around on the slate with water, a set of camel's hair or sable
brushes which will come to a good fine point when wet, a nest of china water-color saucers, a soft sponge,
some white blotters and a piece of clean, absorbent cloth. Later, if the student desires to do color work,
he may secure the necessary water-colors. He will have much to learn in monotone however before
attempting the other, and should leave that for future dcveloi^ment.

Moimting the Paper.— So that the paper will not wrinkle up when water is applied, it must be
mounted or pasted down onto the drawing board. For this operation are needed a clean, soft sponge,
some white blotting paper and a bottle of Higgin's Drawing Board Paste (not mucilage). There is no
paste "just as good." Follow the directions carefully and a satisfactory stretch will be obtained.

Be sure that the board is clean, then lay the jmper on it (face up) and, using the sponge, wet the
paper thoroughly with clean water, being careful not to rub the surface hard. Squeeze the water from
the sponge and take up any that stands in puddles. Turn the paper over, keeping it flat in the process,
and wet the back similarly. Take up the surplus water and, with the blotter, take the moisture well out
of the paper for a strip about an inch wide all around the edge. It is now ready for pasting. The j)aste
may be taken in a ball beneath the fore fingers of the two hands and run along onto the dried strip around
the paper. It is too heavy to be applied with a paste brush and should not be thinned with water. Rub
it out until it lies in a very thin coat. If left thick in places it is apt to crack off. Now turn the paper
over and press the pasted edges down securely to the board at the same time stretching out all wrinkles
and pulling the paper taut. It sometimes helps if a number of thumb tacks are set around the edge until
the paste has dried completely. While the paste is drying, keep the center of the paper slightly moist
up to within two inches from the edge. This prevents any tension from coming onto the pasted edge
before it is dry. When the center is allowed to dry the sheet will be found to have stretched tightly,
affording a perfect surface for both drawing and rendering. The stretching of the paper can be over-
done and, when such is the case, it may pull so tightly upon drying as to break when moistened again
in the rendering of the drawing. It will take the mounting of several sheets to acquaint the student
with the ins and outs of the process.

4.3

PLATE IS

ARCIIITKCTURAL DRAWING

F*ractice Sheet. — After thr jKipcr has boon mdunU-d, a ])ractice sheet should be laid out and ren-
dered in monotone. Plate i8 is a suggestion for this sheet. It contains an even wash, one graded from
light down to dark, one from dark to light, and the shades and shadows of two simple objects and two
mouldings. This sheet should be mastered before any other work in rendering is attempted. A prac-
tical size for the sheet is about 14 by kj im hes, divided into six eiiuai parts as indicated. The cylinder
in the fourth space is 1 ' _. inches in diameter and ^ inches long and its center line is J-^ inch in front of
the wall on which the shadow is cast. The (lutta in the next si)ace is 2I2 inches in diameter at the
bottom, 1'^ at the toj) and is 2 '4 inches high. It is suspended from a 3''8 by i"'g by 1 2-inch block and
its center line is -'s inch in front of the wall. The mouldings of the last space may be drawn approxi-
mately as shown.

Laying the Washes. — First prepare the india ink in the slate slab, then mix it in three or four differ-
ent intensities in the china saucers. Wet the paper, using the sponge and clean water, then take up all
water which stands on the surface. If the paper is not damp it will be difficult to prevent the color from
drj'ing quickly and producing hard lines in the wash.

Find by trial on the border of the paper if the most dilute saucer of ink is of the desired intensity for
the first exercise. With the brush full of this ink begin at the top of the space, and, working from side to
side, lay on the wash as (juickly as possible, keeping the board slightly tilted so that the surj^lus color
will drain toward the bottom of the space. When the lower line is reached, squeeze the color from the
brush and take up the surplus color from the paper with the brush tip. Care must be exercised to pre-
vent one part of the wash from drying more quickly than another as this is fatal to a smooth wash.
The ability to do this well can come only by practice.

The second wash is laid similarly except that the first brush full at the top of the space is clear water.
Then a brush of diluted ink from the next saucer is used and so on, each brush full being darker than the
other until the darkest part at the bottom is reached. The even grading of the result will depend upon
the skill and care with which the darker color is added.

In the third rectangle the previous process has been reversed, the darkest color used at the top and
more water added as the wash progresses downward.

The objects in the lower rectangles are given to illustrate the fact that both lights and shadows
vary in intensity. The surface or part of a surface to which the sun's rays are perpendicular, is always
the brightest, and the degree of brightness diminishes as the surface is turned away from this position.
These contrasts become less pronounced as the distance from the observer to the object increases.
This fact ma}- be employed in rendering to give the effect of relative projection of building parts. The
walls nearest to the observer are rendered more brilliantly than those at a distance and the detail of the
distant parts is kepit less distinct than that close up. The student can observe this everj'where in
nature. The greater the distance, the more indistinct the detail and color contrasts.

In rendering a curved object such as the cylinder of Plate 18, its lighted surface should first be
modeled by a very light graded wash as indicated, showing the parts of greatest light intensity, etc.
Then the shaded part and the shadow should be similarly treated. It will be noticed that the shadow is
slightly darker than the shaded surface. This is caused by light being reflected back onto the shaded
surface from the bright parts of the wall on which the shadow is cast. Because of this reflected light,
the brightest part of the shade of a curved surface is usually directly opposite the most intensely illu-
minated point. The shade line of such a surface is not really a distinct, clean-cut line, but shadow lines
are always sharp and well defined. The mouldings illustrate the principle of reflected light in shade and
shadow.

The Attic base of Plate 14 will also serve to illustrate the varying intensities of light and shade and
the effect of reflected light.

ARTICLE V

SCALE DRAWINGS

Plates 19 to 45

Working dramngs consist of all plans, elevations (both exterior and interior), sections, scale details
and full size details necessary lor the adequate completion of the work.

The scale drawings 01 a building are those which show the general layout of the building as a whole,
locating the various features of the scheme, showing their relation to each other and giving the principal
dimensions.

The scale dra%\'ings of the architect correspond in a sense to the assembly drawings of the machine
designer. The characteristic of the architect's scale drawing is that it deals with general conditions
and represents them by symbols rather than to show each feature exactly as it would appear. On
Plates 19 and 20 are gi\en these symbols which represent the various materials of construction and the
fixtures which are usually found in the average building. The use of the plan symbols is illustrated on
Plates 21, 22 and 23.

In general, when any feature is to be given afterward in a detail drawing, it is shown on the scale
drawing merely by a quickly made symbol or a note. This is also true of features with which the builder
is familiar and of which there will be no detail drawn. Do not indicate or dimension a feature in detail
on the scale drawings when you intend later to make a large scale or full-size drawing of it, as this would
be useless repetition.

For example, a fireplace is often located on the scale drawings by dimensioning to its center line on
the plan and giving but few other figures. Then on the detail, everything is carefully shown and
thoroughly dimensioned.

Thus it will be seen that the scale drawing is merely an indication while the accurate description is

left for the detail.

Determination of Scale. — The first thing to be decided about the so-called scale drawings is the
scale at which they shall be drawn. This is fixed by the size of the building and the degree of fineness
with which we wish to go into detail.

The average residence is drawn at a scale of ' ./' = i' — o", while a \ er\- large house must be drawn
at a scale of '^" or Ife" = i' ~ ""■ I" deciding the size of the sheet to use, bear in mind the fact
that the tracing cloth and bluei)rint i)ai)er of which we will hear later, come in widths of 30, 36 and 42
inches and sometimes wider. lor sizes of other paper see page 10.

Method of Laying Out the Drawing. Plans are usually drawn with the front of the building toward
the botlijm oi the sliecl. if li(iwc\tr the building is very deej) and narrow, this may not be possible.

The principal plan should be laid out first. This in most buildings will he the first lloor jilan. Then
the second, third, etc., Hour |)lans arc drawn, the basement plan usually being drawn last. This is
almost always the best order of proc edure, no matter what the building may be.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Center Lines. — If the plan is to be symmetrical about a center line, this line is the first thing to be
drawn and the plan worked out each way from it. Ink this center line to ]>revent its being erased when
changes are made in the pencil drawing. Notice how the plan on Plate 32 has been worked from the
several center lines. This is true also of elevations; see Plate 24.

After locating the center lines if there are any, lay out the rooms according to the previous approxi-
mately determined dimensions without indicating doors or windows. Draw the lines vcrv lightly with
an // ]iencil.

Location of Doors and Windows. — Now locate the doors and windows by center lines only. Second
story windows are usuall\- located directly above those of the first stor\- l)ul this is a matter to be deter-
mined by the design of the elevation as is also the width of these openings. After the elevations have
been worked up, these features may be drawn on the plans, using the symbols of Plates 19 to 23 and
48 to 51.

The Width and Kind of Doorways and other openings, will be determined by the kind of building
with which the draftsman is concerned or by the use to which the building will be j)ut. Thus the front
door of a residence should not be less than 3' — o" wide and other outside doors not less than 2' — 10"
wide. The communicating doors or those in the partition walls of a residence should be at least 2' —
8"\vide to allow the passage of furniture. Closet doors may be 2' — 6" wide or less.

Door Heights will vary according to the design of the room. Sometimes a panel is placed above the
door to give a feeling of additional height. It looks well in a residence to have both window and door
heads at the same height above the fioor if this can be done.

The term righl-hatid or left-hand door will be met with and should be understood. When you enter
the house, if the door opens away from you and swings toward your right, it is a right-hand door; if it
swings away from you and toward x'our left, it is a left-hand door. A knowledge of this is cjuite impor-
tant in buying hardware.

Influence of Stock Material. — Stock sizes of material often have a bearing on the design of a build-
ing. This is particularly true of residence work. For example, joist come only in even lengths, and if a
room were 14' — o" X 20' — o" the nearest size of joist to span this room would be 16' — o" long,
leaving a waste of about i' — 4" for each joist. If this room were made 13' — 4" or 15' — 4" wide the
entire 14' — o" or 16' — o" joist could be used, for the joist extend into the wall about 4" at each end.
Of course it is not always possible to prevent this waste.

Wall thicknesses are fixed by the material of which the wall is built. A frame wall is about 6
inches thick, a brick wall is 9, 13, 17, etc., inches thick and stone walls vary from 12 inches up.

Where soil pipes are placed in the walls, the pipe joints would project through the plaster and into
the room if 4 inch studs or framing timbers were used. To prevent this the studs must be furred or
framed out far enough so that the plaster will cover the pipe. Sometimes 6-inch studs are used in such
a wall.

Window glass comes in even sizes and for this reason it is well to make all window frames of a size
to take the stock glass, particularly if there are a great many of the lights to be furnished.

PLATE 19

PLAN 5YMBOL5 FOR. PLUMBING FlATURt5

+ -f ^^^^ FAUCEiT

iOIL PlPt IN A- rRj?,ME: WALL VENT PIPE: [N K fR^Mt WALL

WATERr^UPPLY RJ5ER_5 [N A
PR^ME: WALL

HOU5E: J)R_AIN UNDE:B^ ^LOOP^ .50ET TILE: DRAIN fOI\. RAIN-WATER, E:TC.

COLD. H' CIRelir ATiors.

WATE:I\.-5U .Y PIP "^ .

^ATH- TUB

5HOWE:R^

iiATH-.

^^^^^^ Z

WALL LAVATORY

CORN&R^
LAVATORy

y//yy^^^>^>^yy.yy/^yx^. '^yyyy^^^>^^yxxxyyyyyyy.<^ Yy^yy/z/y^ ^ , ^,

-^ivf

KJTCH-ErN SINI^
WITH TWO DRAIN BOARDS

LAUNDRY TUBS

WATEiR^ CLOSET

URJNAL

5YMBOL3 FOP^ BUILDING MATLRJAL

IN SEiCTION

IN EiLtVATION

w^^

IN 3E:CT10N

IN ELE:VATION

■^A Structural

-V^ JILE:

TE:R.RA
COTTA

PLA5TE:K_

••| Or^5tucco

CONCRETE:
OR_ CE:ME:NT

)vfE:TAL

DU£ TO THE: PACT THAT THE: PLAN.5 Or DlhF-E:R.ENT DI^PT5ME:N WOULD Jit LIKELY
TO HAVE: THE: VARIOUS MXTUHtS E:TC. RE:PR|:5E:NTE:D IN W1DE:LY J)IPF-E:RIN& MANNErR^,
IT 15 WE:LL TO ACCErPT A STANDARD 5YME.OL rOR^ tACH" E-ErATUKE: OE- THE: BUILDING.
TH15 MAi'^E:5 f-OP^ E:A5E: IN TE+E: lNTE:RPRIrTATION OF" THE: DRAWINGS JbY E:VE:RyONE:
CONCfcRNErD. THE: SYMBOLS OEiNErR^LLY USE:D FOR^ PLUMJblNG AND EtfcATING FIX-
TURES AR|: AS 5HOWN . THfc WIRING SYMBOLS HAVE £iEEN ADOPTED SN THE
NATIONAL CONTRACTORS ASSOCIATION AND THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE: OE ARCHITECTS
AND ART: ACCEPTED £>Y MOST OEEICE5 . THE SYMBOLS USED POR^ PIPING AND EOR,
BUILDING MATERIAL ARE AT GREATER^ VARIANCE, MOST OEEICE5 E5TABLI6EHNO THEIR,
OWN STANDARD ACCORDING TO THE NEEDS OE EACH CASE. IE THIS IS DONE:. A K|:Y
TO THESE SYMBOLS SHOULD ACCOMPANY THE DRAWING.

SYMBOLS I OR MATERIAL AND HXTURii^

PLATE 20

PLAN 5YMBOL5 FOP. ELECTRIC FIXTURES

(COPYRJ GHTED

/?< CtlLIMG- OUTLfcT. THt NUMDtR. INDICATES
^ THE: NUMBER. OF- 16 CANDLfc POWER, LAMP5.

)«<-4. COMBINATION (ELECTRIC AND GA5) CEILING
>4<Z OUTLET, 4 ELECTRIC AND 2 GAS LAMPS.

WALL £)RACK,ET OUTLET. NUMBER. INDICATED
NUMBEFL OE 16 C.P. LAMP^.

COMBINATION (ELECTRIC AND GAS) WALL OUTLET
WITH- a ELECTRIC AND I GAS LAMP.S .
OUTLET IN WALL. USUALLY IN M5EBOARX). NUMBER
INDICATES 16 CP. LAMPS TO Bt ACCOMMODATED.
ELOOR^ OUTLET. NUMBER^ INDICATES NUMBER. OE
16 C.P. LAMP5 TO Bt ACCOMMODATED.

MAIN OR.EEEDERcRyN CONCEALED

"under. THE r-Loorv..

MAIN OR^EEEDERjRUN CONCEALED
"UNDER. THE ELOOI\. ABOVE: .

■MAIN OR,. PEEDER^- RUN ErXPOStD .

BRANCH- CIRPUIT-RJJN CONCEALErD
"UNDER^ THE ELOOR^

BR.ANCH ClRCUIT-RyN CONCE:ALE:D
' UNDER. THE: ELOOR. ABOVE .

OUTLET EOR,. OUTDOOR. 5TANDARJ5 OR^POST. .

NUMBER,. INDICATES 1(6 C.P. LAMPS.
)|5l(4 COMBINATION OUTDOOR^ OUTLET EOR. STANDAR.D.
SS*; a 4 ELECTRIC AND 2 GAS LAMPS .

^ DRPP CORP OR,. SUSPENDED OUTLET.
® ONE-LAMP OUTLET EOR. LAMP RECEPTACLE.
3 AR$^ LAMP OUTLET.

(^ SPECIAL OUTLET EOR, LIGHT, HEAT OR. POWER..
CrCCD CEILING PAN OUTLET.
^S' SINGLE POLE .SWITCH- OUTLET.
- DOUBLE POLE .SWITCH- OUTLET.
THR.EE-WAY SWITCH OUTLET.
POUR.- WAY SWITCH OUTLET.
AUTOMATIC DOOR,. SWITCH OUTLET.
ELECTRpLIER. SWITCH- OUTLET.
METER^ OUTLEiT.
Bl DISTRJBLTION PANEL.
Ijijlgggg JUNCTION OR. PULL JiOX .

y^!" MOTOR. OUTLET. NUMBER,. INDICATES HOiyE-POWER..
[>><] MOTOR. CONTRPL OUTLET .
=^^ TRAN3POR.MER,..

H
N

Q
B

|-^D
m

lihli

■ — BRANCH CIRCUIT -R,UN EXPOSED.
-—POLE LINE.

RJSER,..

TELEPHONE OUTLET. PRiVATt SfcRyiCE .

TELEPHONE: OUTLET. PUBLIC SERVICE.

£>ELL OUTLET.

BUZZER^ OUTLET .
PUSH BUTTON OUTLET.

ANNUNCIATOR^. NUMBER. INDICATES THE
NUMBER. OP POINTS .

5PEAK,INO TUBE .

watchman's CLOCK. OUTLE:T .
watchman's STATION OUTLET.
MASTER,. TIME CLOCK, OUTLET.
SECONDARY TIME CLOCK, OUTLET.
DOOR. OPENER,..

SPECIAL OUTLET EOR. SIGNAL SYSTEMS.
fiATTEKY OUTLET.

PLAN 5YME)OL5 POIR. GrA5 PIPING"

.MAIN OR^ SUPPLY PIPE CONCEALED
"UNDER. THE PLOOR..

.MAIN OR. SUPPLY PIPE CONCEALED
"UNDER, THE PLOOR. ABOVE .

^=^=^= £>R,ANCH PIPE CONCEALED UNDER^
TH-fc PLOOR..

^^^^^.^ BRANCH PIPE CONCE-ALED UNDErR^
THE PLOOR. ABOVE: .

:== = ===MAIN OIV. SUPPLY PIPE: EXPOSED.

-0-— O-STRJrET GAS MAIN.

===■= BRANCH- PIPE: ErXPOSE:D .
O RI5E:R^.

HEATINGr AND VENTILATING- 6YMbOL5

•STEAM PIPE LINE:.
■GLOBE: VALVE:.
•TEE .

■R|:TURN LINE. EXHAUST LINE. DRI.P LINE:.

GATE VALVt .
RISE OR,DRpP.

CHECK. VALVE

TEE RISE
OR. DRPP .

ELBOW.

ELBOW RJSe
OR. DROP.

STEAM OR HOT WATER.
R,ADIATOR,. .

HOT AIR REGISTER, VENT. REGISTER.
IN &■ WALL . IN &■' WALL .

HOT AIR. REGISTER, VENTILATING REGISTER^
IN PLOOR.. IN PLOOR,..

Id COL. 20-40°'

^sc

t 12"» l8"H.A.RtG.

T 1 2"- 18" VENT.

12^

20 HTAl'REa

I .. II

1 2. « 20 VENiT. R.EG.

Lf M M I ii^ * ' ' ''

mtttttmitfy,'^]

NUMBER OP COLUMNS

AND NUMBER. OP SQ^. PT. R^O-

RADIATING SURPACfc NOTED. ALWAYS NOTE ON THE DRAWING THE K.1ND AND SIZE: Op R.fcGI5TER.5.

SYMBOLS FOR. FIXTURES

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Elevations. — Before developing the plans very far the elevations should be blocked in and the plans
and elevations carried along together to secure the best result. It is well to draw the elevations on
transparent tracing paper as this facilitates the work. This paper may be laid directly over the plan
and locations read through it.

An elevation should indicate everything on the outside of the building from the grade to the chim-
nev caps and that portion of the basement wall which is out of sight in the ground should be shown by
dotted lines as on Plates 24 to 27.

First decide on the story liciglits or distances from floor to floor and mark them out on the sheet.
Now draw the floor lines across the sheet as shown on the above mentioned plates. They should be inked
to prevent their being erased when changes are made in the pencil drawing. Some draftsmen like to
use red ink for this, as the floor levels are easily found among the other lines. If the elevation is to be
symmetrical, draw the center line or lines next and ink them.

Now the grade line representing the surface of the ground is drawn at the desired distance from the
first floor line. Sometimes both the natural and finished grades arc shown, the latter by a solid line
and the former by a dotted one. Both of these should then be plainly noted as on Plates 24 to 27.

A temporary vertical wall section should now be drawn at one side of the sheet extending from the
footing up through the cornice. It should contain the vertical section of a typical window in each
story, sections through the floors, and a typical cornice section. This need not be drawn in detail here
but just complete enough to assist in drawing the elevation.

Next draw the center lines of windows and doors very lightly and draw in the windows and doors
as desired. After this is done the>- may be placed on the plans.

Any other features, such as porches, hoods, bays, dormers, etc., should now be drawn on the eleva-
tions and plans.

If the stairway is next to an outside wafl it is often shown by dotted lines on that ekn'ation to which
it is adjacent. This is of particular value where windows occur on the stair or landing as it gives a definite
means of locating them vertically. See Plate 37.

On the elevation of a frame house the boards are indicated by fine lines and on a brick house the
horizontal brick joints are sometimes similarly shown. This lining is usually shown on just enough of
the elevation to make clear of what the wall is built. Stone joints are indicated in a like manner. When
the drawing is inked the joints are often shown in dikited ink which differentiates them from the other
ones as explained under the subject of Reproduction of Working Drawitigs.

ARCmiECTUR.VL DRAWING

Where ornament occurs on the elevation it is often omitted from the scale drawings and its location
shown by merely its outline or by a note, see Plate 43, or else onl)- a small ])ortion is indicated and its
continuation or repetition is noted.

When some exterior walls can not be described on the front, rear or side elevations (such as certain
court walls), they must be drawn separately and given an ex])lanatory title.

In all of this elevation drawing the perspective effect or actual appearance of the resulting structure
must be kept in mind as this will often \ary materially from the appearance of the projection drawing.
See article on Perspective and Plate 9.

Scale Details. — After the plans and elevations are well worked up the draftsman must make the
scale details. These are detail plans, elevations and sections drawn at a scale of l^", y^" , 1 1^" or 3" =
i' — o" according to the amount of definition to be shown. They arc used for conditions where small
scale drawings will not sulTue and where full-size details are not necessary. See Plates 28 to 30 and
36 to 38.

Dimensioning. — After the drawings have been made, the sizes of the various features and their
location in the building must be definitely given by dimensions.

First and foremost, these dimensions must be made clearly and so that they can not be read incor-
rectly. Too much emphasis can not be laid on this statement. The figures given in the article on
lettering are the most legible and best for use on working drawings. The accompanying drawings show-
how the dimension lines should be made. The dimension in any case means the distance from arrow
point to arrow point, so care must be exercised that these arrow points be located in exactly the right place.

When possible, keep dimensions off the object. Thus on Plate 22 the arrow points often touch two
lines extending out from the plan. These are called extension lines or reference lines and are made very
lightly. Extension lines are drawn through the centers of windows, doors, etc. , for the purpose of locating
them on the plan.

No line of the drawing and no center line should ever be used as a dimension line.

Dimensions should read from the left toward the right and from the bottom toward the top of the
drawing. In any case they should read with the dimension lines, not across them. This is illustrated
on the Cochran plans.

Dimensions should always be given to the face of masonry walls, to the outside of studs in outer
frame walls, to the center lines of frame partitions, to the center line of beams, girders and columns and
to the center line of door and window openings. In any case they must be given so as to best aid the
workman who is doing the building. Give them also in such a way that variation in stock sizes of
material will not affect the result.

In addition to the dimensions to centers of openings in masonry walls, the width of the opening
should be given. This is necessary in getting out stone sills, steel lintels, etc.

Whenever possible, keep dimensions off of sectioned surfaces.

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

A careful study of the accompanying drawings will show the best ways of indicating dimensions
under various circumstances. Information concerning the dimensioning of stairways, fireplaces, etc., is
given with the details of those features.

It is very easy to spoil a good drawing by poorh- made dimensions so the form of the figures and the
shape and location of the arrow points should be carefully watched.

Notice on Plate 22 and Plate 32 how the detail dimensions are given on one line, the larger dimen-
sions on a line outside the detail dimensions and the over-all dimensions are outside of them all whenever
possible.

In general, the vertical dimensions are given on the elevations and vertical sections and the hori-
zontal dimensions on the plans. Verify this by consulting the plates.

The plans, elevations and sections on Plates 21 to 30 give the student a comprehensive idea as to
the dramngs necessary for a complete graphic description of the average residence.

Of course for a cheap house where a great deal of stock material is to be used, the drawings might
be much more simple, but for good work, each feature should be carefully presented.

Notice the scale at which the drawings are made and the amount of detail shown on each.

Reproduction of Working Drawings. — After the building is drawn up, a number of sets of the
drawings must be made to supph' each of the contractors with a copy and to replace those worn out on
the job. These are made by placing a sheet of transparent tracing cloth over the pencil drawing and
tracing all lines, notes, dimensions, etc., on the cloth in black drawing ink. This tracing is then placed in
a frame over a white sensitized paper called blueprint paper and exposed to the sun or an artificial light.
The light causes a chemical change in the emulsion on the paper which, immersed in water, causes the
paper to turn a deep blue wherever the light has reached it. The black ink lines prevent the light from
reaching the emulsion and so all lines, notes, etc., develop out white in contrast with the blue background
making a very legible blueprint. After the print is washed it may be exposed to the light without causing
any further chemical change.

This method of reproduction is both cheap and practical for working drawings. Jn all cities and
towns of any size may be found blueprinting establishments, and the architect can have this work done
more cheaply than he can do it himself.

Sometimes blueprints are made directly from pencil drawings on tracing paper but they are not so
sharp and brilliant as those made from the cloth tracings.

When the draftsman desires some of the lines of the blueprint to show rather dimly, he traces them
in diluted black ink. 'i'his allows some light to tiller through and jjroduces bluish lini's which are not
so prominent on the print as the white lines. These are valuable in showing brick jointing, section
lining, etc.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Drawings of Existing Buildings.- Wlu-n it is found necessary to make alterations or additions to an
existing building, llic drullsman hnds himself in need of a graphic record of the structure as it stands.
If the original drawings of the building are not available, it is necessary that measurements be made and
recorded in some quick and accurate manner so that workable plans, elevations, etc., may be drawn
from them. The amount of detail and care with which this record must be made will l)e determined
entirely by the new work to be done and will wary with every case.

The first record is made on coordinate paper. This pa])er is ruled vertically and horizontally with
lines 1^ inth apart forming !« inch squares. Every eighth line is heavier than the other seven, thus
forming i inch squares also. As the sketches are usually made at a scale of Js" = i' — o", the plans,
elevations, etc., may be easily drawn on this paper in good proportion, for each small s[)acc represents
one foot at this scale. The paper should be fastened to a piece of cardboard or other lightweight board
so that it may be easily carried and marked on. A 6 foot folding rule and a steel tape will be needed
for making the measurements.

Care should be exercised to make the notes complete at first, for if anything is omitted, much time
may be wasted in repeated trips to the building for the missing information.

P'irst, the floor plans should be measured and recorded. These should show all principle dimensions
of rooms, the location of stairways with the number and dimensions of the risers and treads; then the
thickness and material of all walls, the width, character and location of all wall openings and then any-
other features such as heating and plumbing equipment, etc., are recorded. In connection with the
plans, any horizontal sections, such as window jambs, etc., may be detailed as needed. As a check to
the numerous smaller dimensions of the plan, over-all measurements should be taken. They may be
secured outside the building or on a straight line through the inside where doors are conveniently located.

In recording the vertical dimensions, the story heights should be secured first. This may be done
by dropping the tape down through a stair well where the building is such as to make this possible.
They may be measured also on the outside wall from sUl to sill of the windows and then adding the sill-to-
floor dimensions of the lower story and subtracting corresponding dimension of the upper story. The
height and detail of belt courses, cornice, etc., must then be secured. At least one of each type of
window and door openings should be shown in detail on these sketches. Where it is impossible to
measure outside heights directly, the number of brick courses or of siding boards may be counted and,
by measuring these features where they are within reach, the inaccessible dimensions may be arrived at.
Another method of obtaining such dimensions is by taking photographs of the elevations, preparing a
scale from known dimensions on the picture and using this to measure those parts that are out of reach.
Roof slopes, chimney heights, etc., may also be found if the pictures have been taken from the proper
station points. The photographic record will be found of much value in the subsequent work.

P LATE 2i

PLATE 22.

PLATE 23

PLATE 24

PLATE 2.')

PLATE 26

PLATE 27

*jo/Lt

PLATE 28

on; coyn'
5o ^50 O

(00)) B

DfcTAIL • PARJ'OF- ' EA5T - ELEVATION-

PLATE 29

PLATE 50

PLATE 31

ARrTIITF.rTrRAT, DRAWING

Contour Map or Site Plan.— When it is necessary to design a building for a site that is not level,
the arcliilcTt must know just liow high each point is above the lowest part of the site. This information
is obtained b)- tlie surveyor and presented in a manner similar to that shown on Plate 31, which without
the building, is called a contour map.

By wa\' of an explanation of this map, imagine a flooded condition of the neighborhood in which the
water is gradually rising. Tiie pait of the lot first covered by the water would be that at the corner of
Salem .Avenue and North Harvard Boulevard. Here the shore line would follow the dotted line
figured 101. .After the water had risen 4 feet more the shore line would follow the dotted line 105 and
the water would ha\ e almost reached the location of the building. Thus it will be seen that each dotted
line represents j^oints of the same level across the lot.

Notice on the curb near the street intersection the bench mark which is figured 100. This is always
established on some fixed object and the various levels measured from it by means of an instrument
called a surveyor's level.

Notice now the note on the {)lan of the building which says that the basement floor elevation is
lOn.O. This means that the basement floor is to be 5' — o" above the bench mark. Thus all levels of
the building and site arc measured from this fixed elevation.

The contour map is valuable in that it tells the architect (after he has located the building upon it)
just how far below- the first floor the ground is at any point around the building. This information is
necessary in the placing of doorways, windows, steps, etc., in the outside wall at the ground level. It
is also useful in determining the amount of excavating which must be done for the basement, and the
fill for grading outside, when the building has been completed.

The given site plan shows also the location of the existing trees and their approximate size. They
are indicated by the spots on the drawing and are sometimes noted as to kind and size.

Location and depth of sewers and location of the water main are also shown.

The points of the compass are given on the map when they are needed.

The lines showing the original contour of the lot are shown on this map by dotted lines and the
future or proposed grade is shown by solid freehand lines.

Dimensions of the lot and location of the building on it are also given.

PLATE 52

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

An Irregular Plan. — The opposite plan of the Grace Methodist Church which is called a general
floor plan, has been given to illustrate the method of laying out an irregular building and to show the
indication of stone, brick, structural tile and wood on a plan.

It should be noticed first that ever}thing has been located from the central point near the change
in direction of the plan and that all main dimensions are given to center lines radiating from this point.

Now identify the walls that are entirely of brick, then those of stone with brick backing and then
the tile and the frame walls. Check them with the schedule of material on Plate 19.

Nothing can or need be shown in detail at this small scale, each door, window, etc., being repre-
sented by a symbol and detailed at a larger scale on other drawings.

The large letters in the circles are not a part of the drawing but will be referred to when studying
Plate 34.

PLATE 33

ARCHITECTURAI. DRAWING

Plan of Concrete and Tile Floor Systems. — Plate 33 illustrates the draftsman's method of present-
ing the structural plan in the main iloor of the church.

The Sun(ia\- School wing has floors of concrete slabs while the auditorium floor is a combination
system made up of a large number of concrete joist between which are fillers of hollow structural tile
block, the latter system being used for the longer spans.

In drawing a plan for the concrete slab floor, notice that the bearing walls below are shown by dotted
lines and the outlines of the slabs are solid lines. Then the slab thickness and the size, section and spac-
ing of the steel reinforcing rods are noted on each slab. Where the slab is supported by a beam, the
beam is shown dotted on the i)lan and its number is noted B-8, B-.9, etc.

The figures in the small rectangles give the elevation of the slab top above the bench mark on the
curb at the street intersection. These elevations are noted at all points of the plan, for the top of each
slab must come exactly to the proper level.

The plan of the combination floor system shows the supporting walls and beams dotted as before
and each concrete joist of the floor indicated by solid lines.

Notice that the center part of the main floor is made up of 71 units as shown in the detailed section
above the plan on this plate, each unit having a tile filler 12 inches wide and a concrete joist 4 inches wide.
The note (6" Tile — 2" Cone.) means tile 6 inches in depth with 2 inches of concrete on top of it as shown
in the detail marked J-A, J-B.

On this plate is given also a t\pical schedule or list of the size of the concrete girders, beams and
joist, and a description of the steel reinforcement in each.

PLATE 34

0/ZAO&- £i.. IfZ-S

hkUM ■ AVE ■ ELEVATION ■ OF - J -J • WIMC-

(^JrilS ELEVATION I5 TAKfN A5 JHOUGH THE; OOJt ly/fcR^ WtRfc JTANDmCr A-J POSITION @ A5 JHOWN
OM Tut I^IRST [^LOOR^PLAM AND LOOI^nO- IM THE: DlRecTIOM iMDICATfcD 5Y "I>l fc AiVROW. 1

— ■ ~ " ; I A£*.. toe-

...A'

£■&. fos-e -J

■ tkST ■ ErLEVATION

[[hiJ tLtVATION 15 JAKPN f-RpM POilT'OM ® A3 5HOWN ON " GR/vCL MCTHODFiT ChURgH

THE: Mp.iT PLOOR^FLAN AMD LOOKONO IN THt niRtCTIOM • JAl LM • nvlThUI^ • 4" -I iAI<y/\l<iJ Ji^.uuLVAKIJ-

iNDiCATtD £.Y THt Apj»pw. -Dayton -Ohio-

Tttt iIDh or Tit iWlPAY SCHOOL WWO- IJ NOT iNCLfDCD IN TrtlJ

PP/ftWIHOr JJMCC IT RUMj AT AN ANOLt Or I20* WrTH THC A60Vt [^crf/ortw //wtj //,b p/ani o/J

V/ALL AM0 Jo VfeULD JStPliTORJCD If VltWtD tRPM THO DIKECTIONI JCHENCK <f MLlfAMi • ARCmTJ.

PLATE 35

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PLATE 36

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Plate 34 will jj;ivo an idea as to the i)resenlati()n of tiie elexation of a building whose walls are built
of roughly-faced stone laid uj) in what is known as rock face broken ashlar. On an elevation showing
this kind of masonry, only enough of the stone joints arc drawn to show the approximate size of the
stones and about how they are to be laid up. Where cut stone is used as around the windows and doors,
each stone should be drawn.

Every opening has a number, and where the feature in the opening is rather complicated, as the
main door 6V) or the tracery in the tower, it may be omitted from the small scale elevation entirely but
shown on the larger scale details.

A note on the plate explains how the elevations there shown are taken.

The two ends of the Sunday School wing and the bay over the entrance door show the manner of
indicating stucco walls with imitation half-timber construction.

Notice on these drawings that the elevations of the bottom of the foundation walls arc noted as are
also those of the finished grade and the floor levels. These elevations as well as those on the contour
map are measured from the bench mark on the curb stone.

On Plate 36 is a t}pical scale detail of the interior of the church auditorium. Here the draftsman
has taken three drawings and so combined them as to save space and, at the same time, show the differ-
ent views of each feature in close proximity.

The center part of the drawing gives a transverse section through the auditorium taken near and
looking toward the south entrance doors. The right half of this shows in detail the plaster and wood
finish on the roof trusses, the ornamental balcony rail and plaster balcony ornament. It also gives in
more detail the wall and floor construction and the roof of the side aisles. The structural or working
part of the roof truss is shown to the left of the center line as is also the structural detail of the roof itself,
thus showing the relation between structure and finish.

At the extreme left of the sheet is a section through the center of the balcony over the narthex
(check with Plate 32) and through a part of the south or front wall of the church. This drawing is
made to show in detail the construction of the balcony and the elevation of the west wall in the narthex.
It also details the arches at the side aisles.

Several such drawings are necessary for the description of a building so complex as this one.

When the building is so large as to necessitate the drawing of the elevations at a small scale as
shown on Plate 34, it then becomes necessary to draw portions of the ele\'ation at a larger scale so as to
describe its parts adequately. Plate 37 gives a scale detail describing a part of the south wall of the
church. This shows accurately the shape, size and location of all features of this part of the wall. It
locates vertically all windows, doors and other openings. The cut stone parts are accurately drawn and
dimensioned as shown, all cut stone joints being located. The approximate size of the stones and gen-
eral character of the ashlar walls is here indicated in a manner easily distinguished from the cut stone
work.

Notice that vertical dimensions are given from the main floor level and the elevation of this floor
(II8.0) is noted. Attention is called also to the method of dimensioning the batter or slope of the tower
wall.

The tower stair, which is built against this wall, is indicated b\- dotted lines and the risers are
numbered for convenience in reading the drawing.

Enough scale details of this kind are drawn to describe all of the outside walls.

PLATE 37

,C/ yV£A7rtCli, VAHb

Dr^TAILJ
or-

GRACE: -Methodist - Church y

-Dayton - Ohio-

Cur jro/vG: -^

DfcTAiL Of haryarp Boulevard r-ACADt

PLATE 38

DETAIL5

Grace: - M£Thodi5T - Chvrch

•5alc;m • Avtnvt- 4^ • Haryarp -BouLEVARp ■
-Dayton - Ohio-

Q Hetirann fro/n ffie p/anj o/* J

JC/ltNCK. eriritllAMS ■ AUCMrS

£>A Y TO/i . - ■ O/// O

[THIJ JtCTION 13 TAKfcN THRy THE; TOWDR_
ON THt CtNTfclV. LINE: A-3 THOUOtt THt OB-
3fcRYER_ WCRC LOOK.ING- WtJT.

THt ORIGINAL DR^Wmoj CONTAIN IN ADDITION
TO Tttli ONE: A ifcCTION THRJ/ THE: CE;NTtR_
Oh THE: TOWErR^ AND LOOKJNO INORJH.
THE:3t TWO TOWE:R_ JE:CTION3 TOGtTHtR-
■WITH THt DE:TAIL tLErVATlONJ Arf-ORP A
COMPLtrTE: DtJCRJPTlON OF- THE: iOV/Trt
AND E:A5T WALLJ OIVINO- LOCATION AND
DfcPTH Of- CUT JTONt COURjtJ AND A3HLAR,
WALL3 AND JHOWING- THE: POSITION OP-
5RICK, £>ACtCIN& IN THE: WALLS.
THE: r-LOOB_ CONSTRycTlON ALSO 13 3HOW/N
AND E:LE:VATION5 OF- THE: INSIDE: WALLJ
AND Of- JTAIRJ E:TC.

r-OR^ PRACTICE: IN RtADING THE: DRAWINGS
CME:C!t. LOCATION or OOORJ , 3TAIRJ E:TC.
WITH THOJE: SHOWN ON THE: AUDITORJUM
FLOOFCPLAN AND CHCCK^ hLOOR^ CONiTRyCT-
lON WITH THE: ni^T TLOOR^ E-RAMINO PLAN.

SINCE: THIS DRAWING 13 0^ NE:CE:33ITY
MUCH 3MALLE:R^THAN THE: ARPHlTErCTJ
DC:TAIL IT 13 IMPOSSIBLE: TO SHOW
THE: MOULDINGS, IRpN BALUSTRADE:
t:TC. A3 ACCURATE:LY A3 ON THE:
HALh INCH SCALE: WORK-ING DRAWING.

H/LL SIZE: DE:TAILS HAVE: BE:E:N-
MADt! rOR_ ALL Of- THE: MOULD-
INGS AND POR_THE: ORtlAMEzNTAL
I R£>N WORJ;^ .

THIS ME:THOD Oh DE:TAILING- HAS
BttN CARiUE:D OUT OVE:R_THE:
ErNTlRJ: BUILDING- MAKINO THE
DRAWINGS VtRy COMPLCTt- AND
tASILY INTE:RPRtTtD BY THE:
BUILDE:R^. ]■

COP/9fi/?_ i^S'o^

2- Z'-* 3 D/AO-Oflf^M.t.y'

Section TMRy Main Tower_
LOOICING We^t

PLATE 59

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•I

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The lot upon which the C'levekmd Discount Buildin-,' Comjiany's building is located is underlaid
for some distance with earth of such a nature thai it will not support the excessive weight of a building
of this size. The depth to which this soft earth extends is so great as to make it impractical to carry
the foundation walls down to the solid footing required. When such a condition is met it is necessary
to provide some kind of supports down through the soft material to the solid rock or other good footing.
These supports are called piles and are long wood or concrete posts. When concrete piles are used, a
hollow sheet steel form is dri\-en down as far as necessary and then filled with concrete. Concrete
footings are next lormccl on lop of the piling and the building rests on these footings.

It is necessar)' that each pile be located as accurately as possible and for this purpose a piling plan
is made as suggested on Plate 39.

Notice that the elevation of the top of the driven i)iling is marked on cacn footing. Thus the
contractor who drives the piles knows just where to fmish ofT the top of each pile. The footing sections,
see Type-A and Type-B, show how the concrete footings are built on toy) of the piling. The steel rein-
forcing rods and the steel girders are shown by solid black lines.

When there are a number of footings of each size and kind, they may be given type numbers or
letters as in this case and only one of each type described in detail.

On Plate 43 is a topical small scale elevation and section of a very large building. The actual
elevations of this structure are much larger than those of the Grace Methodist Church and consequently
must be shown at a smaller scale so that the sheets may not become too large to handle. This makes it
impractical to show so much detail and such drawings are therefore useful only in suggesting the eleva-
tion as a whole by simple lines and in giving the main vertical dimensions.

The transverse section.shows the banking quarters on the first floor and the rental space and light
court above.

Parts of the elevations are then detailed at a larger scale similar to that of the church on Plate 37.

Notice that the ornamental metal work and terra cotta is indicated in the simplest possible manner
and sometimes only noted.

Plate 44 gives one of a number of large scale details showing the relation of the walls, floors, and
ornament to the structural members. It is explained by the note on the plate.

The banking quarters, which are the most important part of the building, are elaboratel\- fmished,
making necessary a great many details of this part. One of these details is given on Plate 45 and is
tjpical of such interior elevations. On the first floor plan of Plate 40 find the point at which this detail
was taken, and compare column numbers, stairs, etc.

PLATE 40

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PLATE 43

OFFICE BUILDING-
^OI^, TH-fc

CLEVELAND DISCOUNT BUILDINO CO.

CLEVELAND - OH lO

TRANiVER.5E 5ECTION II

\jSco/e of or/^tna/ cfrat*'//7o\

PLATE 44

[tH\S is ONfc Of- JtVErRAL VfcRTICAL StC-
TIONJ TAK^N AT 3UCM POINT3 ARpUND
THe BUILDING- AS TO DfciCRiBt COM-
PLETELY THE: RELATION £.ErTWEtN THt
5TErtL rRAMe AND THt BRJCK. AND
TtRRA-COTTA WALLS AT THOSt POINTS.
IT SHOWS Tlit MEMBtR^ OE THt PRAMt
IN SECTION OR, ELEVATION AND THE;
MANNER^ Of- BUILDINO- THE: MASONRY
WPON THE: OIBDErR^ AND LINTtL 5UP-
PORJ3.

IT ALSO ILLUSTRA-TErJ CLtARLY THE
METHOD Of- 5ECUR1NO- THE ARCHI-
TErCTUR.AL TERRA -COTTA; TO THEr
STErCL f^RAMt: .

IN SOME: PLACE:5. iUCH A5 AT THC
CORNICE AND AT THE St:VENTtENTH
STORY 6ALCONY, 3PE:CIAL OVfcIV_-
HANOING- STE:£L 5UPPORJJ AR^
R.EQUIR£D. THtSfc ARt: JECURtD
TO THE: MAIN M^A-MfcWORJC BUT
THE: DErTAILS Of THt f-A3TtNING-5
ARt: NOT USUALLY SHOWN ON THt
ARCHITfcCTi IlRA-WmG-5.
THt BRAf-TSMAN MUST HOWtVfcR_
BEAR. THEM IN MIND 50 THAT THEY
MAY BE WORJCED OUT A5 HtR£:
JUG-Q-E^TCD.

THE: ORJOINAL OE THIS itCTION
"C-C" CONTAINS MANY MOR_E NOTfcS
AND DIMENSIONS THAN ARt HERf:
SHOWN, ONLY THE MOR_Er IMPORTANT
0Nt3 BtINO- GIVEN ON THIS DRAWING.]

OFFICE BUILDING-

P-OR_ THrr

CLEVELAND DISCOUNT BUILDING CO.

CLtVELAND - OHIO

_ ^mefrotvn from f/it />/onj o/\

VERTICAL SECTION ON LINE C-C'

\Jca/e of or/'^inaf tfrot*^'/?^^

PLATE 45

PLATE 46

f- O 1- -^
t/, to •

to to i_ -i
1- X 1- 5;

° dJ

o I— »o

•LI O, -liJ
|_ it_ O lO h-

IRAMING Ol WOODEN BUILDINGS

ARTICLE VI

DETAIL DRAWINGS

Plates 46 to 6 1

Architectural details are those drawings made at a larger scale than the i)lans and elevations to
describe accurately the \arious methods of construction and ihe mouldings and ornamentation of the
building.

The scale of details varies according to the necessity of the case, •''4" = 1' — o" being a good size
lor general detailing such as exterior elevations and wall sections while interior elevations are often made
at a scale of I2" = i' — o". Where absolute accuracy is required, such as for the fine mouldings of a
mantel, full-size details are necessary.

The smaller scale details are usually included in the general drawings while full-size details are
furnished only to the mechanic who is to get out that part of the work.

The details of any building consist principally of the following drawings .

First — Vertical wall sections describing all horizontal mouldings or belt courses, the sill, wall thick-
ness, method of framing floor systems into walls, windows, cornice, and roof at the cornice. The de-
tailed plan or jamb sections are sometimes shown on this drawing.

Second — Details of the exterior elevations which could not be described adequately by the small
scale elevations.

Third — Detailed elevations and sections of the features of the interior such as doors, fireplaces,
stairways, ornamental beams, cornices and other decorative features.

Fourth — Parts of the plan are detailed when necessary.

After the general drawings have been gotton out, the full-size details are completed, usually in the
order in which the building is done. Thus the basement windows are almost always the first full-size
details made for the better class of residence work, since these windows must be built and delivered before
the basement wall can be completed. The interior trim, stair finish, etc., are full sized last for that is
the last work to be put into the building.

There is a great variety of detail for each feature of a building, but it will be necessary for the student
to study at this time only the standard methods of construction, and suggestions as to the drawing up
of the principal details.

A careful study of the detail drawings of the Cochran residence, the (irace Methodist Church and
the Cleveland ofiTice building, so that the student may understand the reason for each feature of the
detail, will be of benefit to him in tlie production of similar drawings.

Stock sizes of material, particularly hardware, will often have a bearing on the design of a detail.
Attention is called to this on some of the detail plates.

PLATE 47

htlNOE AT TOP
/"to iwiING UP

GIVE TOTAL GLA5S
5IZE H-ERt ||
GIVE WIDTH! F-IK^T

THEN naom

WHEN MUNTINa
ARE U5ED MARK.
■'X)I VIDEO" I

I^OMETRIC PICTURI:

PART REMOVED TO 5H0W C0N5TRyCTI0N

PART ELtVATION
OP 0UT51DE

VERTICAL
SECTION

•g- ^H-EATHING-
3U1LDING PAPER;-
^ilDINO
BLOCIC AT
EACH- STUD

REEiATE

EOR^ SCREEN-

HEAD

5E:CT10N "A"

, JAM5

"J SECTION &

^1- MUMTIN

R.EBATE

5ILL

SECTION 'C

j^ . .L

5TONE WALL

r-ffV/EATrtER.^TOP

UNDER^ilDE OE^ILL
KERftD TO PR|:VENT
WARDING

CHErAP PRAME:

:tE ALJO SHEET NO. 1

PAt COCHRAM PJrolDtNCt

DETAIL 5ECTION5

GOOD F-Ri^ME:

OCALt \z - l-O
I ■ I ■ I ' H

3 fy 0 12 mCHti

BASliMHNr WINDOW IN I RAMI: WAIJ,

PLATE 48

Mciq.MO mcK.

-jl --^^.^ 1 J5RLCIC AR£H-
-CAMbtR, PIfcCt

A WIMDOW HEAD IN A ^RLCK^ WALL MAY £>t: JiUILT A^
JHOWN AT ThtE: LtfT, WITHt A £>RiCIQ_ ARg-H- tXTfcND-
INO tNT[R£:LY TH-RgUOht THE WALL AND 5UPPORTtD
AT P-IR^T £>Y THt CAMB£R_ PItCfc5 WHICH- AKL" iUILT
ONTO THt M?^M6. THI5 ARCH- Oh COURSE: .3HOW5 OUT3IDE:
THE WALL. WHEN THE J5E6IGN CALLS EOR^ A STRA'GrHT LINE
ACROSS THE WINDOW HEAD, THE £.RLC1C ARfiH MAY JiC JJUILT
PART WAY THROUGH THE WALL SUPPORTING ONLY THE J!)ACKJ.NO
JJRiCIC WHILE THE EOUR_ INCHE.3 OE EACE .DRJ.C1^ \d CAR34J:D ON A
5TONE LINTEL OR_A 5TtEL ANGLE M SHOWN ABOVE:.

PERSPECTIVE PICTURE:

PART REMOVED TO 5H0W CONSTRUCTION

TWO RpWLOCiO

f-ACfc
JiRJCI^

5TEEL LlNTfcL-^

TWO OR^ MOKE
CAMBER^ PIECE5
/ARE U5ED DEPEND- '
ING ON WIDTH OE.,'*
ARCH TO BE "J

.SUPPORTED ,^(

£>RICIC,
ARCH-

ARCti AND
LINTEL HEAD

^CALt :|- = r-o"

WH-tRJ: IT 15 NECEr55A-P0i' TO 5E:T THE:
WINDOW HEAD H1GHER_ THAN THE: JiOTTOM
OF- THE F-LOOR_ JOIST, THt F-LOOR>_ 15
EKAMErD /V5 5HOWJS ABOVE: TO ALLOW
SPACE: IfHTO WHICH- THE SASH MAY SWING.

BASEMENT WINDOW IN BRICIC WALL

PLATE 49

SS: ALSO SH-EETS NO.S AND
NO. 9 R^n COCHRAN RESIDENCE
• rPLATK^aANDZS]. ■

iHEATttino-
FURjy.NG —
METAL LATH
.STUCCO —

EL ASHING
ARCmiXAVE

OUTSIDE CASINO

YOKE:

PARTING ^TRIP

WOOD OI^METAp
PENDULUM

ARCH-ITIV.VE

PULLEY iTlLE

PARIIN

.SILL

£>ED
MOULDING,

PER^PtCTlVE: VIEW

WlTht PART RtMOVfcD
TO 5H-OW CONSTRyCTlON

5TUCCQ

MttTINO-
RAIL

5ACK,. BAND

LEAD OR,
CA.3T IRON
".3A5H WEIGHTS

CASING-

ARCHITRAVE — fi^'^J^
5TOP

JAMB
^ILL

JTOOL

APRPN

PLft^TER^

GOOD PRAMfc 4^ 3Am CfttAP f-RAME ^ SAStf
5TUCCO WALL WOOD 5IDINO-

DETAILED 5ECTIOrS<5

!-■-> ■ I ■ I i I I Pi I I I I

IZ INCMfca

THE DETAILS or THe DOVbUz HUN& WINDOW VARY .SLIGHTLY
IN DIF-EEHENT .SECTIONS OE THE COUNTRY BUT ARE
ESSENTIALLY A5 H-ERE GIVEN. THE DESIGN OE MOULD-
INGS AND OE THE 1N.S1DE AND OUTSIDE TRIM IS WORlSfrD
OUT TO SUIT THE DESIGN OE THE 5U1LDINO.
BELOW IS GIVEN THE METHOD OP INDICATING AT A SCALE
-o" THE PLAN OETHC WII^CW IN A ER^ME WALL.

OE ^

HALE I HALE INSIPfc

tLtVATION

y///yyyyA-

^y-y^yyyy>

^ SCALE PLAN

DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW IN FRAME WALL

PLATE 50

DETAILErD

IM 15 OPLI7 INCH WALL

6E:CT10IN5

MtTttOD OF- INDICATING WINDOW
IN 9" WALL AT >5CAL& ^ = \'-o"

IN ALL 5UT THE CHEAPEST WORjC. THE YOKJr AND PULLEY 5TILE5 5HOULD DE ER^MED IN-
TO THE OUTSIDE CASINO AS HER£: SHOWN. THIS 13 DONE TO PREVENT THEM ERQM
WARPlNGr AND THEREBY CAUSING lift SASH TO BIND. THE IN5IDE CASINO BEING-
NAILED OR^SCRErWED TO THESE MEMBER^ ASSISTS IN MOLDING THEM EIRlylLY IN
PLACE THE PENDULUM. WHICH PREVENTS THE SASH WEIGHTS ERQM INTERT-ERLNG. IS
OFTEN OMITTED IN CHEAP ER^MfcS. THIS MEMBER. 15 SWUNG LOOSELY ER0M THE TOP
ONLY AND WHEN MADE OE THIN WOOD WILL SOMETIMES WAR?. BECAUSE OE THIS A STIEE
COPPER^OP^HEAVILY GALVANIZED IRpN JTRIP IS BETTER-..

DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW IN BRIOC WALL

PLATE 5f

CHfcAPLY DETAILtD

GOOD DETAILS IN
M?A,M^. ■ir 5A-5H-

SHEET METAL.
flA5fflNO

//, THIS SPACh
-DETERMINED BY
ftARgWARE VS£D

PREVENTS H^ME

HEAD
MUNTIN

5TEEL I BEAM
LINTEL

^TEEL PLATE
RIVETED TO I BEAM

MOULDING tXTENDET
TO OOVER^ .STEEL ^

^XREEN REBATE

JAM5

MEETINGr
,5TILE5

6ILL

MtAD

,.5PACE DETERMINED
HARDWARE; UStD

TRANSOM

MULLION

DRIP MOULDINO

III'

WEEP HOUE

JAMB

OUT SWINGING-

IN SWINGING-

DLTAIL 5E:CT10N5 IN PRAML WALL

tc±D

=t=t=

61LL

Ti MS OP CA5fcME:NT5 MU5T Bt CARErWLLY STUDIED

TO -j:.,/^.;i OAT15PACTORY RE^ULT3 FOR. IT 15 VtRY Dlf-MCULT
TO MAKfc TliI5 TYPE OF" 5A5tt WEATHERcTIGi-fT. THIS 15 PARr

V TRyE: Of- THE: IN-5WINGING CASEMENTS.

■:L6 given are TYPIcAL and may fit VARIED
TO oUiT THE NEED5 OE THE CASE .

WHEN THE 0<JT5ID£ WOODWORjC. 15 TO bh PAINTED AND
THE INolDE 15 AEINI5HED HARP WOOD, THE DETAIL SHOULD
£)E MADE WITH THIS IN MIND. THE SOETER^ OUTSIDE WOOD
SHOULD NOT SHOW ON THE INSIDE OE THt J5UILD1N& AND
THE MORt E;^PENSIVE: WOOD SHOULD NOT JbE USED

f-OR. HEAVY PARTS OE , ,ME.. THIS IS ILLUSTRATED

BY THE DETAIL AT THE RIGHT AND IS TRyE OE ALL ERAME5.

DETAIL POI^MCI^WALL

OUT 5W1MGING

IN BRICK, WALL

m M?^ME WALL ^//A-

SYMBOLS FOR^ ^ PLAN5

CASEMENT WINDOW DETAILS

PLATE 52

Ml.

tl3&C J

F LtD&C III

L LtDCrt; II

Mill

1 LtDO-t 1

)

if" 1- woe: JI

■tjiTOP R»IL

"2-

Si BOTTOM IVilL

£>A-TT£NtD

JCRtW AND GLUt

F-I?/VME: WITH STOP ^ET IN

L&DGtD LEDGfcD ^ BRACtD

TYPE^ OP IN5IDE D00R5 -tt^

STUCK. MOULDED DOCK.
JO CALLtD 5ECAU5E: OfV
THE: MftCfflNE OK.
5TlCICt<'0N NWHICI+
Tttfc MCXJLDING 15 CUT

JL.

PATENT

H0U5E DOqil?, |\

HANGtRj

I I
oPACfc DtTERMINtD
£Y ttANGE:R,U5ED

L^v

hfEAD

TYPICAL FOK.HtAD <^JAMB

htEAD

RADIUS OF- CURVATURE:
15 DtTERMINtD JiY.
HARpWARJ: UitD

-^J\ CURYtD ErDGE NOT
N£CE:35ARy WITH
50Mt TYPtS or HINGt

<:!?

JAMb

F-LOOR^yo/sr

-yU

poU£>LE SWINGING D°-°Il.

J)°-°Iliri fRAMt WALL IN A 13 INCH J3R1CKWALL

TftE BATTENED DOOR. IJ THE TYPE U5tD EOR. LAR.&E DOOR.J OE EACT0R.IE3 ETC. IT 16 5UILT UP
OEDIAGOMAL MATCHED BOARPJ A3 INDICATED. THE LEDOEC AND THE LEDGED AND BRACED
iWR. APE WED WHERE APPEARANCES ARE NOT IMPORTANT 5UCK AS IN CELLAR^ ETC. THE PANEL-
ED D00R.li fiUILT UP OE HEAVY PART5 CALLtD STILEJ AND RAIL5 IMTO WHICH AR.E ER^MED THE
THIN PANELS. iUCH DOOI^ ARE SOLID A.! AT THE LEET OlttLSE THE STILES AND RA1L3 ARE fiUILT OP STRIPS
OLUtD UP AND A THIN SHEET OP THE FINISHING WOOD 0R.VENttR.l5 GLUED OVER.THE 0UT5IDt A5 ABOVE .

POCKtT MAY OR,
MAY NOT BE LINE:D

A5TRAGAL

WHtR,t DOUBLE
DOORS MEET

5LIDING D°-°ll.
IN PRAMtWALL

^CALE: Of- ALL ^CCTION.3
1^"= I'-o"

I I I I I I I I I I J I I I L I 1 I I ■ 1 I I ■ I

O 3 6 9 l£ INCHES

DETAILS OF IN5IDE DOOR5

PLATE 53

CHEAP PRAMfc 5TEEL LINTEL

SUPPORTS
^ACt £.RJCt«~.
^CRftN R£5;SfE

5TEtL LINTEIL-
XitaONED TO fARKf,
"~-~;^THE ENTIRE WALL'
/ AT OPEMINO "'""'

TYPICAL POR.
HEAD (^ JAM5

50LID
GLA53

TRAN50M 3AR.

SOLID

uM ^1,

DETAIL'^ f RAM E WALL

V/ITH TRAN50M

51 LL SECTION
IN £)RICI^ WALL DETAIL ^^ HOWELL 4- Th^M A5

ARCHlTrrCT^
■- " CLfcVtLA-ND OHIO

DETAILS OF OUTSIDE DOORS

PLATE 54

[tHI5 note 15 orvtN ON THt ORLGIMAL TO SAfEGUARP AGAINST ANY POMFBLe DISCREPANCY JiETWEtN THt CURyt
rof THE: 5TONfc AR^H AND THAT Of- THE WOODtN fl^Mt . SUCtt AN ERBpiV 15 VERY LllCfcLY TO CRfrEP IN
WHEREVER^ THE WORK. OE TWO CONTRACTOR^ MUST FIT TOGETHER, PERtECTlY AND IT IS V/ELL TO CALU ATTENTION
TO THIS T-ACT £)Y A NOTE DN THE DETAIL .] |„_/l^

^^OTE:-VER!^Y I^DII N OtECKINGr
6AMt WiTtt 5T0NE: ARC^t
ON THt JOB.

SECTION "£)"

^CALEz Of- StCTIONS l2=I~<'

I I I I I

O 3 6 9

la INCMEiS

ELEVATION OF ONE DOOR.

^CALt 4-"= I'-O

[on THE ARCHITECTS DRAWINO THt JDOOR^ ELEVATION
IS MADE AT A SCALE Of ^-l-o". ALL SECTIONS
4^ ELEVATIONS OE PARIS ARE DRAWN EULL SIZE: .
ONLY THt PP4.NCIPAL sect's. ARf: HERE GIVEN]

\Jig€fraiflfn /ro/n fhe p/ons of J

DETAIL OF DOOR. N9 63

GR^Ct METH0DI5T CHURCH

DAYTON OHIO

PLATE 55

SHEET METAL
A-5H-|NCr

/-ADOUT Z

WIRf HANG-tRo

METAL LINED 5UMP
AT LOWEST POINT 0^
■Rpor TO CATCH- WATER.

MOULDED

•SHEET ;^ETAL

GUTTER^--) ^^^.y^y-^ ,

DOWNiPOUT

CONDUCTOlO

PRPJECTING CORNICE '^_^

OPEN RAF-TE:R.5

J!)OX CORJSIC&

WITtt CURBED RQOP

.jior-.'iiGr irVrroM

/ /-TIN OR, COPPER^ ^ ■>-

. ..r,,^,.^ '- / \ LINED GUTTER^-^ ^"^ *

^^^TOJORM CURyE ^^^ ^X | ^^,^,R^

r-iiDDiNry NAILED TO

-.'.VtL JiOTTOMy ^^

PLANCH EK.

O-W)

PORCI-^ CORNICE
4^ GUTTEK.

trrdr I I I I t I I r I I I I I I I 1 I
l£ (NCHtd 3 6 J

f MATCHED
'4»- £>EADED
CEILING-

\ * -JiL-AM

GUTTF.RS AND CORNICES FOR FR.AME WALU

PLATE 56

PLANE: Of

^ PERPENDICULAR, TO
( THE: GROUND

H0U5t

.5 MOULDING- AT CORNE.1^

IN THE: PICTURE: ABOVE: 15 5HOWN A CONDITION IN WHICH A

H0RJ20NTAL MOULDING- INTErR^tCT^ A RAKING OR, SLOPING MOULDING

AT THE:COR,NE:R^O^ A BUILDING. If-50TH MOULDINGS ARJ: OP THE 5AME:

PROHLE: THtY WILL NOT PIT TOGfcTHErR^AT THE: COR_NE:R^.

THE: DRAPT^MAN, APTE:K, HAVING E:5TABL15HE:D THE: PROPILE: Of"

THE: HORIZONTAL MOULDING, MU5T DE:TE:RJ^INE: THE: PRpPE:K_

PRPPILE: POR^THE: R,AK.ING MOULDING SO THAT THE: TWO

WILL MITE:R^TOGfcTHE:K_ ACCURATEzLY AT THIS POINT.

TO ACCOMPLISH THIS HE: PRpCE:E:DS AS SHOWN i.E:LOW.

\© E:5TABLlStt THE: PRpPILE:
OP HORIZONTAL MOULDING.

@ DR.AW SIDE: VIEW OP RAKJNG MOULDING
NOTICING THAT END Of- MOULDING HAS
SAME: PRQPILE: AS HORIZONTAL MOULD.

(D LOCATE: SEVERAL P0INT5 ON THE:
PRPPILE: AND DRAW THE: DCn:
AND DASH LINES AS SHOWN.

@ DRAW LINE: A-B PERPfcNDICULAR,
TO THE: GRpUND AND LINE: C-D
PERPENDICULAR^TO THE: SLOPING RpOP.

(5) PR©M C-D LAY Opp O, EiOyAL TO O
THEN 7?," tQJAL TO "d" UC. LOCATING
ENOUGH POINTS POR^ ACCURATE: WORR.

(?) CONNECTING THESE: POINTS WILL
GIVE THE: PRpPILE: Op THEr
RAWNO MOULDING.

CORNICE MOULDING FOR GABLE END

PLATE 57

5 TONE
COPiN&

DRJP-

fr^W

'block^

JiDGfc OF- RQOMNG-
_0f-rLA5HmG- IS
5E:CURtD IN THE GROOVE
WITH- ELASTIC PACK;i.NO-

^E-ATH-lHCr

PLAT Roof-
ed PARAPET WALL

5IMPLE: CORNICE <^
CONCEALED GUTTEI\_ON ELAT R^OE

MtTA^^S

ANCHOR^ Jb:
SUILT INTO
MASONRY WALL'''-''/^

.';r: ALSO
Ta'.CORNICE:
Of- CLtVELAND

discount co.
,:■!■: lding

TERRA COTTA CORNICE
mm MtTAL LINED WOOD GUTTER^

H-i . 1 ■ t . I . t-

12 INCHti 9

^JCALfc l2- " I-

GUTTEHS AND CORNICES FOR MASONRY WAILS

ARCIITTK( ri'RAL DRAWING

STAIRWAYS

There are two general tv^^es of stairways, the closed stair where the steps are built in between walls,
and the open stair whicli ma>' have a balustrade on one side and a wall on the other or balustrades on
both sides. See Plate 58.

I'Villowing are a few general rules and reminders which should be observed in laying out a stair
so as to obtain the most of comfort and safety in their use, and ease in their erection.

That ])arl of the stair on which we step is called the tread and the vertical ])art of the step is called
the riser. Tlie total distance from lloor to floor is called the rise and is equal to the sum of the heights
of all the risers. The horizontal distance from the face of the bottom riser to the face of the top riser
is called the rit)i and is equal to the sum of all the treads. These are all noted on Plate 59.

So that one maj- take steps of normal length in walking up a stairway, the size of riser and tread
must be considered carefully. The height of one riser plus the width of one tread should not be less than
17 inches and not more than 18 inches. Another good rule is to make two risers plus one tread equal 24
inches. A good average for residence work is to make the riser 7 inches and the tread 10 inches. Treads
should never be less than 9 inches from face to face of risers of wood stairs or 10 inches for stone steps.
The overhanging part of the tread is called the nosing and is not included when width of tread is figured
nor is it shown on the scale drawings. See Plates 58 and 59. All risers must be the same height and
all treads must be the same width on a stairway. Unequal treads or risers will form a stumbling
place on the stair.

The steps of a curving stair are called winders and when they occur in the same stair with straight
steps, the treads of the winders should be the same width on the walking line as those of the straight
steps.

All stairways should be well lighted, both naturally and artificially.

A front stair should not be narrower than 3' — o". The topof a handrail should be about 2' — 6
above the tread measuring vertically in the plane of the riser. This height may be increased to 2' — 8"
or more where the rail runs level as on landings.

P LATE 5S

ABOVE:, 15 5HOWN THt DRAM5MANS MfcTHOD Of-

DRAWINO THt PLAN Of- THI5 5TA1R_AT A 5CALfc

0^ 4:'=l-0" 0R.-5 = r-0'. THE: F-ACT THAT ThtE: 5TR.ING

15 OPE:N MUST BE: 5HOWN ON AN E:LErVAT10N OI^ A 5E;CTION.

5INGLE FLIGHT TO SECOND FLOOI^, OPEK'-STAIl^ WITH
OPEN 5TRiNO, CL05ED 3A5EMENT 5TAIR. DIRECTLY UNDERNEATH

r.nwN <? ^ 5tR>

XiOTTtD LINErS INDICATE: 5TAII^
'ABOVE: LfcVfcL AT Vi^HICH THE:
PLAN 15 TAKJrN.

IMAGINARy £RE;A!
IN HR^T f-LlGHT

2ND

l6R..I5E:Rj

f-LOOK,

PLAN

i-=l-o-

IN THE: PICTURE AT THE: RIGHT THE: WALL HAS £>teN
:r:MOVE:D fRPM THIo 51DE: OE- THE: 5TAIR^ AND A PORTION
(:'■ THE: STCPa £.Rg>KJ:N AWAY TO 5HOW THE: ARK^ANGErME-NT
' r- THE: HIDDErN PARJ5.

r-IE: £A5CMr;r;T 'TA:P^ I5 0PE:N at THL- PIR5T PLOOP^iUT BUILT
. fiE:TV/E;f:-: (aojtD 5TAIR.) IN THE: -DA3E;ME:NT. THE: X>AJE:ME:NT

AIR. 13 U; ..IMPLE: OPE:N 5TAIR,£UILT or 1^ INCH PLANIO IN

i<|:3IDt:NCt: woi<jS •

DOUbLt FLIGHT TO SICOHD HOOK. OR.
'PLATFORl^ 5TAIR:', OPEN 5TAIFLWITH CL05ED STRING

TYPES OF STA1R.WAY5

PLATE 59

STRAIGHT
x-RAlL

NEWfcL

TYPE5 OF 1-tANDRAlL TURN5

w/w/vw/V//mww/;vwwvw

SECTION THRy 5TAIRy/AY

TO 2NC. PL

£.ALU5TER^ DOVfc-
TAILfcD INTO TREAD
AND THEN COVER.ED
WITH- MOULDING- LlK-fc
THE N051NG Of TH£ TRpAD.

PICTORjAL
DRAWINGr OF

0> // 5TA1R_

WlTht PARJ5 REMOVED
TO ^htOW CON5T RUCTION

STAII^WAY DETAILS

PLATE 60

ARCHITF.t'ri'KAL DRAWING

Handrails are either continuous with a curved portion or wreath where they change direction or
else thc\- arc straight and ha\'c newel posts where they change direction as shown in Plate 59, Types of
Handrail Turns. The last mentioned rail is usually the cheajier one to build. Starling newels should
extend down through thr lloor and \)v bolted to the lloor joist or else fastened to a timber which has
been so boiled. Landing newels should carry down similarly through the landing so as to afford a
secure fastening. The center line of the handrail should be on the center line of the newels and ma\' be
assumed to come directly over the face of the plaster wall or the wood panels below. See Plate6o.
Where possible, let risers intersect newels on the center line of the newel. See Plate 58.

Special attention should be gi\'en to the head room on a stairway and this should never be less than
6' — 6" as shown by the stairway section on Plate 59, and should be 7'— o" to 8' — o" if space will permit.

The construction to carry the stair must be kei)t in mind and sufficient space allowed for strings
and carriages.

It is always well and often necessary to draw a section through the stairway similar to that on
Plate 59. This section should show the newels, balusters, rails, etc. Draw it in such a way as best to
show the stairway. The one given on the plate is merely diagrammatic.

On the scale drawings should be shown in plan and elexalion the location of the risers, the handrails
and newels and a few general dimensions such as the rise, the run, the width to center line of handrail
and the height of the handrail. Sometimes the risers are numbered beginning with the bottom riser.
This is for convenience in reading the drawing. See Plates 22 and 37.

Sometimes only the mouldings of a stairway are detailed full si/.e, but for good work, full-size
details are made of the newels, rails, balusters and all mouldings, and sometimes of the entire start of
the stair, such as that given on Plate 60.

The diagonal use of the scale as described by Fig. 30 on Plate 4 affords a handy way of laying oS
any number of steps quickly and accurately.

lOI

PLATE 61

TA5LE: OP DlME:N5ION^

WIDTH OP

OPENINO

HtlGHT Cf
OPtNINO

JXlPTH- OV
f-IRtPLACE

DRfAJT

WIDTH- Of-

TttRPAT

MUt

"f-"

"o"

3-0 2- 4-"

I-4"

fl"

1-6"

aH2

\6'

3-6"

2-4'

;-4-

1-6'

4-"

12'' 12

13"

lO'

13"

4-o"

2-6"

1-4"

fl"

i-s"

12- 12'

i3"

15"

4.- 6"

2-a'

1-6

2-0

12^12"

lo'

Ifc

5'-0"

J -o

i-a"

12"

2-0-

l2'Ma"

12"

21"

A f-LUE:

£> ^MOK^ CHAMBE:R_

C PATEiMT I)AMP£:R_

D THRPAT

B £)RE:A5T

^tCTlON

THE: AbOVfc DIAGRAM AND TABLE: Of" DIMENSIONS MAY £>L
USED A3 A GUIDE: IN LAYING OUT A SUCCE5JEUL PlRtPLACE
OE THE WIDTH NOTED. THE: DIME:N3ION3 NEED NOT £>£
F-OLLOWfcD EXACTLY £UT THE PRPPORJION5 SHOULD J3E:
PRESERVED AS NEARLY A3 THE MATERIAL USED WILL
PERMIT. THE PICTURE: OIVE3 A COMPREHEN3IVE: IDEA Of- A
EIRE PLACE AND MANTEL WHILE THE ELEVATION, SECTION AND
PLAN SHOW THE ARCHITECT5 DRAWING3 OE THIi PCTAIL.

tLtVATION

-WIDTH-
PL ArN

HALP tLEVATION

ELUE:"^ )[ \v;
ABOV&^=^=^ -^

Z. Htf

1-0

O !£ INCHES

PICTORJAL 5E:CTION

THRU CENTtK^OP

PIKtPLACE:. MANTEL (|r ELUE

MR.EPLACE DETAILS

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

THE FIREPLACE

The fireplace has been called the central feature of the home and as such should be given careful
consideration by the architect.

The form, proportions and material must be sucli that the fuel for which the iireplace is designed
will burn in it readily without sending gas or smoke out into the room.

Heat is thrown out by radiation, reflection and by movement of the heated air. If the side walls
of the fireplace slope in as they extend back, they will reflect heat out into the room, which would not be
the case if they ran straight back. Sloping the back wall as shown on Plate 6i also helps to reflect the
heat out into the room.

Any chance down-draft in tlie chimney will be arrested by the smoke shelf as shown by the arrows
in the section, thus preventing the smoke from being driven into the room.

The amount of opening in the throat must vary with different conditions of the fire and atmosphere,
but when wide open, must be equal in area to the flue above. To allow for adjusting the size of the
throat, a damper should be built into it. This is nothing more than a large simple valve for controlling
the size of the throat.

All dimensions of the fireplace depend on the size of the opening into the room. At the top of
Plate 6i is a diagram of a fireplace properly proportioned and a list of dimensions for several sizes of
openings.

When an iron grate or basket is to be used for burning coal, the dimensions and shape of the basket
will determine to a certain extent the size and proportions of the fireplace.

All fireplaces, except those for gas, should be lined with 4 inches of fire brick.

If wood is to be the fuel, the fireplace should be about 18 inches deep.

The floor is protected from the heat of the fire by the hearth which is built of brick, stone, tile, etc.
There are several methods of supporting the hearth, two of which are shown on the drawing. The
usual method in wooden floors is by means of the trimmer arch as shown in the sectional view. The
hearth may be carried on the joist as indicated in the pictorial section but shrinkage of the joist will
cause cracks to open up in the hearth which is not the case with the arch shown in the orthographic
section.

10.^

PLATE 62

PEDIMENT

PAPI5 ,

3UPP0KrED "

5UPPOKriNG
MEM5EP4

BA5E

1UMN3

MA150N CAPvRiE "] NIME5^
Roman cofmnthian ytMPLE

26P -

IM-4jP

28 P

T IM

ABOUT
5JD

STVLOBATt

EGYPTIAN

GREEK DORIC Oiy?f.PvOF THE

ORptlVOF THE TEMPLt OF K^RtlAIC
PAKTHtNON AT ATHENE

PKPPOMIONi OF THE GReEI^i
BY VIGNOLA

ARTIC LE VIT

THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE

Plates 62 to 73

A buildinj; may be (ii\i(lcd into three primary parts, a substructure or base, the sufjporting members
and tlic sujiporled part. When the supporting member is continuous it is called a.wall, if however, the
supi)ortcd part is carried upon heavy, more or less isolated supports, these are called piers. The lighter,
more slender supports are called columns. The member which rests upon the columns or piers, spanning
the sjiace between them and carrying the parts above, is a bra»i or liiilcl, and when the lintel is the direct
support for a roof, it, tt)gether with the overhanging part of the roof, is called an entablature. The wall
in a pediment is known as the ly»ipa>!ii»i.

That ornamented columns were made use of many centuries before Christ has been proven by the
discoveries of archaeologists. The form and proportions of these supports were gradually improved
until, in the classic temples, they reached the height of their development.

Many examples of these classic columns are in existence today together with their entablatures,
bases, etc. These have been measured carefully and drawn up, making them available to the designer.

The classic column consists of a shaft which is ornamented at the top by a capital and at the bottom
by a base. The base is sometimes carried upon a member called a pedestal when short and a podium
when continuous. The column together with its entablature identify the style of architecture of the
building and is called an Order of Architecture.

The diagram on Plate 62 gives the names of the various parts of the classic Orders for reference as
they are used in the following text.

There are many and various examples of each of the Orders. Those given in the accompanying
plates seem best to represent each Order.

Plate 62 gives a comparison of the proportions of the five Orders of Architecture as fixed by the
Italian architect, Giacomo Barozzi, born at Vignola, Italy, in 1507, died 1573. The Greek Order of the
Parthenon at Athens and the Egyptian Order of the Temple of Karnak are also shown.

All dimensions on the plates are given in terms of the base diameter of the shaft. This diameter
is divided for convenience into two parts called modules and each module is divided into 30 equal divi-
sions called parts.

In stud\ing the Orders, the student should learn their principal proportions and rely on the plates
only for those detailed dimensions which can not be called to mind readily. After becoming acrjuainted
with the Orders and with the principles of design, it will be found that the details may be varied almost
at will, to suit conditions.

los

PLATE 65

COLUMN RASE

PEDESTAL

VO^^

<- lik-^

af^

—/OM

J 5- J*^A

VIGNOLA"5 TUSCAN ORDER.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

TUSCAN ORDER

The Tuscan is a Roman Order named from Tuscany, a part of Italy. It is really a simple Roman
Doric being \ery similar to that Order except that it has no ornament and lacks the refinement of the
other Roman Orders. The proportions seem to be those peculiar to timber construction rather than
stone.

There are very few fragments of this Order remaining to us but several of the Italian masters have
invented what they thought should be the details and dimensions of the comjilete Order. The best of
these is probablj- the one invented by \'ignola and is given on the opposite Plate 63. It is very simple
and easily executed, all of the moulding profiles being made up of circle arcs and straight lines. The
column shaft is not fluted and the base consists of a simple torus resting upon a perfectly plain plinth
block.

107

PLATE 64

ARCHITECTIR AL DRAWING

GREEK DORIC

The Doric Order was probably named al'Ur tlic race of Dorians, a people of ancient Greece. It is
the oldest of the tlirco Greek Orders and in it is found the most subtle refinement of outline and propor-
tion known to architecture. It is said that the proi)ortions of man were the basis of the Doric dimen-
sions, a man being about six times as high as the length of his foot, so the column height is about six
times its base diameter.

The best e.xample of this Order is that of the Parthenon at Athens, built about 438 B.C. The Order
of the Parthenon is given on Plate 64.

The base of the Greek temj)le is called a slylohalc and usually consisted of three large steps. The
Doric column has no base, the shaft rising directly from the stylobate and having a height from 4H to
61 2 times its base diameter. The column usually was scored with 20 elliptical channels meeting in a
sharp edge or arris. The capital is very simple and suggests great supporting strength, it consists of
a heavy square slab called an abacus below which is an ovolo echinus of subtle ])rofile. Toward the
bottom of the echinus are several raised bands or anmdets against the lower one of which the channels
terminate. There is no distinct necking to this order, but in place of an astragal we find grooves on
the shaft just below the echinus. These are called scamilli. They produce a pleasing band of shading
at this point. The shaft between the annulets and the scamilli is called the hypotrachelitim.

Most of the Greek Doric architraves are plain and very deep, and the soffits are a little less than
two modules in width in the better examples. At the top of the architrave is a broad terminating
fillet called the taenia, also a flat band called a regula from which are suspended the peg-like forms called
gtittae occurring beneath each triglyph.

The frieze contains a series of raised slabs called triglyphs, between which are square spaces called
metopes. A trigh-ph occurs over the center line of each column and one centered over the space between
columns. Thus the width of the metope determines the spacing of the columns. Where there is a
break in the entablature as at the corner of the building the trigl^^ph occurs at the corner and not
centering over the corner column. The next triglyph then is centered between the corner one and that
over the next column which makes the metopes between them slightly wider than normal. As the
corner columns are usually placed closer together than the others, this difference in the metopes is not
noticeable. The triglj^ihs are about one module in width and are scored with two vertical V shaped
channels and the two corners are chamfered with a cut similar to a half channel. These channels begin
down on the cap of the architrave and terminate in slightly varying forms just below the plain band cap
of the triglyph. The face of the triglyph usually lines up with that of the architrave below, while the
face of the metope is set back and usually ornamented with sculjitured and painted figures. There is a
plain band cap on the metope similar to that of the triglyph but not cjuite so wide. The corona ])rojects
about one module beyond the frieze and is about three-fourths as high as its projection. Its lower sur-
face or soffit sloi)es up toward the building to a broad continuous band just above the frieze. The soffit is
broken up by fiat blocks called miitidcs, one occurring over each triglyph and each metope. On the lower
surface of the mutules are guttae similar to those on the architrave. The crowning member of the
entablature is the cvmatium which is often richh' ornamented.

109

PLATE 65

PLATE 66

ARCHITECT UR.\L DRAWING

ROMAN DORIC ORDER

In the Roman Doric we have an Order resembling the Greek Doric in a general way but having
some very marked differences. Foremost among these are a general lightening of the proportions, the
addition of a base to the column and an alteration of the mouldings of the capital. The Roman column
has a necking and an astragal and the channels stop below the astragal. There are two distinct entabla-
tures to this Order. One of them has the mutules similar to the Greek Doric while the other has, in
place of the mutules, a series of small supporting blocks called dentils. The corner triglyph occurs
over the center of the corner column and not at the corner of the frieze as in the Greek Order.

The best example of the Order is probably the theatre of Marcellus at Rome and it is from this
that \'ignola derives his Denticular Doric Order given on Plate 66. His Mutular Order, Plate 65,
seems to have been inspired by that found at Albano near Rome. Another example, from the baths
of Diocletian, is cjuite ornate and tends toward the Ionic in its detail.

tI2

ARCIHTErTURAi, DRAWING

IONIC ORDER

The Ionic Order, named from the lonians of ancient Greece, is generally lighter in i)roportion than
the Doric. It occurs in two distinct tjpes, the Attic-Ionic and the Asiatic-Ionic, whose principal
difference lies in the column base and the cornice. The base of the Attic-Ionic, Plate 69, consists of
an upper torus, sometimes very large, below this a large scolia and at the bottom a smaller lorus which in
some instances is entirely omitted. The base of the Asiatic type consists of a torus resting upon a
double scotid which is carried by a square plinth.

The column is from 8 to 10 diameters in height and is scored by 24 semicircular //i//<'5 separated
by fillets.

The capital is the distinctive feature of the Order and there are several theories as to its origin.
One of the best of these seems to be that it is the development of the conventionalized Egyj)tian lotus
flower. In Assyria, tiles have been found on which are primitive Ionic forms; no remains of Ionic
buildings have been found there however. The Ionic capital was eivdently not intended for use at the
corner of a building as its sides are difTerent from the front and back. To overcome this difficulty, the
Greeks placed the volutes of the corner columns on both of the outside faces bringing the two corner
volutes together on the diagonal, as in the temple on the Ilissus near Athens. See Plate 69. The pillow-
like rolls on the sides of the capitals back of the volutes are called balusters and are sometimes orna-
mented by flutes or foliage. In some examples are found a necking and an astragal while in others the
shaft terminates under an ovolo moulding just below the cushion of the volutes.

The architrave is either plain or divided into two or three plain surfaces each projecting slightly
beyond the one below. Its crowning member is a cyma moulding and fillet. The frieze is a flat surface
to receive sculpture. The corona is a plain undercut member supported by a cyma bed-mould in the
Attic form and by a dentil course in the Asiatic. The cymatium and its supporting moulding are often
elaborately ornamented.

Since the Ionic volute is rather difficult to draw, the method of laying it out is given in detail on
Plate 68. For small scale drawings the construction may be simplified.

PLATE 67

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

ROMAN IONIC

The Roman Ionic Order seems to have been borrowed from the Asiatic style. The Romans how-
ever lost the beauty of proportion and form that characterized the latter, and in its place overloaded the
Order with bold ornament and made the entablature heavy and unpleasant. The cornice was usually
large and supported by dentils. The mouldings were semicircular in section, lacking the refinement
of those of the Greeks. The best example of this Order is that of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome,
and it is from this that Vignola's Ionic, Plate 67, seems to have been derived. His base however is
like that described by Vitruvius.

PLATE 68

I — Locafe verf/ca/ orxJ harizonfat

Z.—£>ra»t^ //7e eye c^e/ /^s jguare in tf.
3-/}/~aty //7& /*vc» ^5° //ne^ /rf the
£^u£3^e and mark, o/f the cerrferz
on /nem Qccor<^/np fo fhe cfeta//.

4~loca^e f/je three, fioinfj of infer-
jecf/on on /he t^er/Zca/ onct /he
hor/z.on/a/ ce/?/er //nes oj ^/Ve/?
/n /he e^e/a// be/ot^^
3-03refu//y c/ra»v /he //nes tp'h/ch
/oca/e /he po/n/j of fanoency <Sf
/tie circfe ores.

&-H//f/7 pain/ No. t 05 a cen/er and
a rac/iL/s /—A c/ro»^ arc / /opo/nf3.
Proceed/ jfn7/7ar/y ty^/h cen/ers 2, 3
e/c fo cenfer /£ tvh/ch t^/// cont-
p/e/e /he oi/fer f/ne of fhe yo/ufe.

7~With poinf No. 13 as a center and
a radium 13- 1 c/raw crrc fo H.
Proceed j/m//ar/jf uj/n^ poinfs /■?,
/S e/c. as cen/ers /o co/np/ete fhe
yofufe.

SUCCESilVI STAGES IN W^

VIGNOlXS IONIC VOLUTE

PLATE 69

PLATE 70

PLATE 71

aj o/ fc7 corner, ///te Arce
of uppef JAa/V" tt<f/A //.

ana <eftf9r fine et/ Ca/cm/t.

men //?* Aj/na^/.

I>rai^ p/an . ///en Mts
c/€i^-t3/ton a/ //fff A&aciAj.

I>ratv on« ^uar/er ^/an /Aen
c/fft^a/t'on o/Jie// //^////y.

loca/ff Cou//C<*/f one/ VoA//ej
//7 fifon, f/rcn /n e/eva/torr.

ttTren an accurafc t^-xtrfttn^ ^rat»'/nf /j
diej/r-et/ // H'/'// ^ tfe// /o make a carefuf
^r^tvtn^ o/ eac/? c/e/a// jepararely ^
n'orkin^ on /racing paper ov^er //te
G//7er c/e/aifs. r/feje t/ratf/n^j may /*«w
i>e asje/r73/ec/ &nc/ pr^jsn/ec/ oj /n
/Ae p/a/7 ancf &/e^^//o/7 be/oiv, or a/^ermje.

SUCCESSIVE iTAGES IN
THE COIUNTHIAN CAPI

Ot/fftne /f>c /Of¥^r /eotvj ,

Ji^n /eay^j /ram Cacy//co//.

i^/'c /n a'^e/cft'/.

.SECTION AT E-F

Via/toto'i Cor/nt/7/on Capita/ as ff/t^vn Affrv /n
f/cfai/ jAocr/e/ no/ t>e jfai^/j/t/y cop/'^e/ as a
tv/7o/ff. A// j/foc/i/ />e uJe^ ra/i^er oj a pui^e
n /ayinp ou/ f/te proper cop/ /a/ for o/iy
par/icu/ar c/esi^n.

y^pno/oj mcfhO(/ o/ ^ferminin^ //te pr€>/ec/-
/on o/ //le /eay^s ^o^s //o/ procfucc ///e
nio^f p/eoj/ny resi//t as i/ ^iv^s //?e/n
/oo mt^/t ow^r/fon^, es/yec/a//y «? //>e jccont^
ro**^ o/ /^a^ss.

The ^e/oi/c£/ p/an of //ie capi/a/ ij ^/i^en
OJ of /Ar setivra/ po/nfs ineficofec/ jby
//Iff /9^ers on /he e/ei^t2/ion.

Partes ti'iiiiiifiinihMn nt

zl Afo<^u/e

VIGNOLA5 CORINTHIAN ORDER

PLATE 72

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

GREEK CORINTHIAN

According to \'itruvius it was the Greek sculptor ("allimachos (fifth century B.C.) who, upon seeing
a basket grown about with acanthus leaves, conceived the idea of the Corinthian cai)ital. From this
was developed the Greek Corinthian Order which consists of this capital used together with certain
members of the Greek Ionic. The sculptors of this nation employed the acanthus leaf in a highl}-
conventionalized form in their Order while the Roman acanthus forms were more Hke the natural leaf.
The body of the Corinthian capital is similar to an inverted bell over the top of which is a cjuadrilateral
abacus. This abacus has a moulded edge which curves in on each side and is cut off at an angle of 45
degrees at the corners. The bell-shaped body is separated from the shaft of the column by a torus and
conge. The leaves of the capital spring up from the torus as though coming from beneath the bell and
are disposed in various ways around it.

ROMAN CORINTHIAN

It was the Romans who fully developed the Corinthian Order and gave to us the typical capital.
This capital contains two rows of acanthus leaves with eight leaves in either row from which spring the
stems and tendrils which form the corner volutes. The lip of the bell in the Roman capital projects
slightly beyond the abacus at its narrowest point while the Greek abacus entirely covers the bell. The
Greek Corinthian and Ionic differ only in the capital, but the Roman Corinthian has a distinctive entab-
lature as well. The corona is supported by a series of beam-like brackets called modillions which are
ornamented with the acanthus leaf. The band from which the modillions project is in turn supported
by a dentil course. The architrave is divided into several bands which are separated by small mould-
ings. The tendency in this Order as in the Roman Ionic was toward over-enrichment.

The Corinthian Order by Vignola is given on Plate 70. It was derived from various examples then
existing and so no doubt is an average of the Classic Corinthian Orders.

COMPOSITE ORDER

This Order is so called because it is composed of parts of the other Orders in various combinations.
It occurs in man}- forms, but the ones which are generally accepted under this name are made up of
parts of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. The proportions are practically the same as the Corinthian
but there is much less of refinement and dignity about this Order than the others. It was usually very
much over-ornamented and in some extreme examples lost almost all resemblance to the Orders from
which it was developed.

Vignola's Composite, as shown on Plate 72, probably represents this Order at its best, but in con-
sidering it, the student must remember that it is but one of a great many varieties and marks the begin-
ning of the end of classic excellence.

121

PLATE

FIG. 73 FIG. 74 FIG.'

1 1 ■ 1

!'5

I—

A^76

FIG. 77

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: V

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,<^

^'^\

§'

■ Vjf'

M\^'~'-~J' \

.^r^

)

/^J^'

-5

^^t

"'i

F^__

<^'--

X"'

A-

- r-

-■ ^f

(

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

COLUMN ENTASIS

It will be noticed that tlu' sliat"t of the classic column is smaller at tlic top than at the l)otlom. The
diameter of the shaft does not (hniinish in direct i)ro])ortion to the height, bnt in such a way as to cause
an elTect of swelling just above the center of the shaft. This curvature is called entasis. It begins one-
third of the way up the shaft in most Orders, the lower third being cylindrical except in the Greek Doric
shaft where the entasis begins at the bottom.

If the shaft were left straight from bottom to toj), it would seem to be slightly curved in near the
center, thereby giving to the shaft an appearance of weakness. The entasis prevents this optical effect
and, at the same time, gives to the shaft a certain life which it would otherwise lack.

The entasis ma>- be drawn on all small work, by the proper manipulation of the pencil against
the straight-edge and without any construction. The method of doing this is described by Figs. 73 to
76 on Plate 73.

First the caj) and base of the column are drawn and then the vertical part of the shaft is drawn to
point B, Fig. 73, one-third of the distance up. The straight-edge is placed as shown and the pencil
placed against the straight-edge and sloping so that the point rests on the line at B. Now draw the line
along, at the same time throwing the point of the pencil gradually farther away from the straight-edge
until location C, Fig. 74, is reached. From here on, the pencil is straightened up as the line proceeds.
This is indicated at D, Fig. 75, and the pencil point is finally brought up against the straight-edge just
as the line reaches point E. After a little practice, the student can draw a nicely curving entasis by
this simple method.

For all work where greater accuracy is required and where the change in rate of curvature must be
constant, the method of Fig. 77 may be employed.

Here the shaft from 5 to £ is divided into any number of equal parts (in this case six) and the part
plan of the shaft is drawn at B. Point E is now projected down to the plan at/ and the circle arc/-5
is divided into the same number of parts as the shaft above. From each of the points thus determined
on the circle arc, project up to the corresponding line above. This will give the points through which
the curving shaft line is to be drawn.

After the entasis has been thus drawn for accurate work, the shaft is dimensioned by giving the
diameters at each of the horizontal lines. From such a drawing the work can be gotten out exactly
as drawn.

123

PLATE 74

.£

A C A D CEAPD CEAP-D CE:A^D

FIG. 78 FIG. 79 FIG. 80 FIG. 81 FIG. 82

TftRP

FOURTH

<5£C0ND

fl^5T

FIG. 83

FIG. 84

FIG. 83

FIG. 86

FIG. 87

CLLA:. CJT,^;;.;i..l, £f MLICWt; lyjDY 16 nor i/LLi'LY MODtLtD.

GrREEK. L&AVE5

RICftLY MODtLtD £ODY WITH LOBtS MORI: I'RpNOUNCtD & 5I:R.RATE:D.

ROMAN LEAVER

ARTICLE VIII

ACANTHUS LEAF

Plate 74

Since the acanthus leaf is so often employed as architectural ornament, it is well to give here a few
aids to the draftsman in laying it out.

With the basic facts in mind, one who is at all handy with his pencil should be able to achieve good
results in drawing the leaf.

It will be impossible to take up each of the many architectural uses to which this leaf is commonly
put, but if the fundamentals are mastered, the drawing of the leaf for any condition will be simply a
matter of application.

The student should begin b>- la\ ing the leaf out perfectly flat so that he may become acquainted
with its forms and proportions, Plate 74.

Draw the vertical center line A-B, Fig. 78, of the desired height. This for a practice drawing might
be about 8 inches. Then draw the base line C-D, Fig. 79, about half as long as the height. Divide
C-D into si.\ equal parts and mark off one part either side of the line A-B at E and F. Draw lines from
E to B and from /*' to B. Measure down from B a distance equal to one-fifth of Hne A-B and draw the
light horizontal lines either side of A-B. This is the spring line for the top curve of the leaf. From
points C and D draw lines parallel to E-B and F-B until they meet with the above spring hne at G and H.
Round off the top of the leaf leaving it slightly pointed at B as shown. Next divide the line A-B into
24 equal parts and mark off on it spaces as follows, beginning at the bottom: One space 6 parts high,
one 5 parts, one 4, one 31^, one 3, and the upper one, 2}^ parts. Horizontal lines through these points
locate the pistules and the starting points of each leaf.

This gives the skeleton layout of the leaf and should be memorized and followed approximately
whenever the leaf is drawn. Now build up each of the leaf parts according to Fig. 84 which shows four
stages of the development, and sketch in the leaf stalks or midribs between the pistules.

If a still more linished leaf is desired each leaf lobe may now be divided again into three, this for
finer work which is to be viewed close up. For the average condition the fourth stage of Fig. 84 is
satisfactory.

With this flat leaf in mind it will not be necessary to lay out all of the construction lines when draw-
ing the leaf curved into the various forms with which the architect must deal. The rules will be
remembered and applied unconsciously. Proportions of the leaf must of course be changed to suit the
occasion.

At the bottom of Plate 71 are typical examples of Greek and Roman leaves with a suggestion as to
their distinguishing characteristics.

PLATE T5

AR riCLK IX

MOULDINGS
Plate 75

Mouldings are perhaps the most important of all the devices employed by the architect for orna-
mental purposes. In their simplest form they produce bands of shadow varying in intensity according
to the contour of the moulding. These shadow conil)inations may be controlled at will by the designer
and arc greatly enriched, when desired, by ornamenting the moulding itself.

On Plate 75 arc given the typical mouldings and the shadow effect produced by each when in the direct
sunlight. When these mouldings are entirely in the shadow of some other object, their own shadow
effect differs from that shown. This is because of the fact that a member in such a shadow receives
reflected light from bright surfaces below. Reflected lights may be considered as coming in exactly the
oi)posite direction from the conventional light ray as described on page 33. The effect of reflected
light may be seen in the shaded portions of the given mouldings.

The accompanying plate illustrates the t\pe of ornament typical to each of the various moulding
contours. It will be noticed that in each case the ornament echos in a way the profile of the moulding.
Thus the ornamental egg is similar in shape to the Ovolo, the graceful waving leaf to the Cyma, the bundle
of reeds to the Torus, etc.

A study of Plates 62 to 72 will show how uninteresting the Orders would become if the mouldings
were omitted; it will also give the student some idea as to the importance of mouldings in architectural
design.

The scale of a moulding, or the degree of fineness with which its parts are designed, is largely
dependent upon the material in which it is to be executed. Thus mouldings in stone must of necessity be
bolder than those in wood. Finer mouldings may be run in hard, close-grained woods than in those of
coarser texture, and mouldings in metal may be designed on as small a scale as desired. The method of
producing the moulding must also be considered by the designer, as this has a definite bearing on the
design. A wooden moulding, if undercut, can not be made in one piece by machinery. When such a
moulding is to be used, it must be made in parts, which is not desirable, or else by hand. In the latter
case the cost usually makes its use impracticable. Study carefully the effects of light and shade on the
many surfaces of the ornamented mouldings.

127

PLATE 76

ARCHITECTURAL

LETTERING

PLATE T7

lABCDH
EFG

LMN

OPCLR

Sill

Bliii-^

m'iW

W^^^

'I '

■KSi

Pi
m

-""^^

IB'-

■' CX

^-- -i-.

StNATVSf

IMPCAES/4IIDlVlNERVAfFNEa^AE

T P, A I A N OA\lG C E RM^DAC! CO PONTI F

MA A ,( M OTR.IBPOTX Vi I I'M'P VI'COSVIPP
I Aonirr! A o A ^'DV7^ilVA^4,TAiAmTVDiNIS

ARTICIJ-; X
LETTERING

Plates 77 to 84

A study of the subject of lettering is important to the architect for two reasons. The first and
commonest is that he may add lo his drawings necessary information in the form of titles, notes and
dimensions, whicli must he done in a rapid legible style, conforming to the character of the drawing.
The second and more important reason is that he may be able to apply it in correct and pleasing form
as a branch of design. He is frequently required to include lettering as part of a design or ornament, to
be executed in stone or bronze or other material. Such design must be in harmony with the period or
style of the architecture and drawn with reference to the kind of material, so that the effect produced
by its execution will be both legible and beautiful.

The foundation is the same for both of these somewhat distinct divisions in the architect's use of
lettering, and involves first an intimate acquaintance with the letter forms, then a study of their
composition and grouping.

The lettering on working drawings is chiefly concerned with legibility and speed. The necessary
skill for this class of work may be acquired by taking up a single stroke letter such as that on Plate 80,
learning the shai)es of the individual letters by practicing each separately, then combining them into
words and sentences, following the rules for spacing and composition.

Lettering on display drawings requires more careful attention. The effectiveness of such a
drawing mav be either enhanced or ruined by the character of the lettering. On this class of work
the selection of the approjjriate style, the placing and disjjlay, and the execution must all have
thoughtful study.

For tablets, inscriptions and the like, to be carved or cast or painted as permanent ornament, there
must be an intimate knowledge of historical style and an acquaintance with the method and effect of
execution in the material used.

In the history and development of formal writing and printing there will be found many varied
forms of alphabets. Some of these are interesting only from the paleographical standpoint, others are
valuable to the designer. It is the intention here to select from the latter a few styles of particular
application to architectural work.

The Roman Letter. — The original source from which all these varied forms have evolved or
descended is the Roman letter of the period of Classic Roman architecture. This letter, somewhat modi-
fied and refined, appears again in the period of the Renaissance, and the general name Old Roman is given
to both Classical Roman and Renaissance Roman. Type based on it is called by the printers " Roman
oldstyle." As it is the architect's one general purpose letter it should be given most careful study.

The finest existing example of Classical Roman is that of the inscription at the base of Trajan's
column (A.D. 114). The column and its inscription are illustrated on Plate 77, together with a panel
containng an alphabet drawn from it. The letters shown in outline do not occur on the tablet but
have been supplied in conforming style to complete the alphabet.

The letters / and J were not differentiated until the sixteenth century. Hence in classic inscrip-
tions / is found used as J. The curved U is also a later form, the sharp I' being used instead on all
Roman inscriptions. While the use of / for J and 1' for U has thus historical sanction, the effect on
legibility is such that it is not recommended in modern work. Using V for U has been much in vogue

131

PLATE 78

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among architects, even on office drawings, but it is now looked upon as somewhat of an affectation.
On United States Government buildings it is not permitted. The antique effect is preserved without
injuring legibility by using the manuscript form O as shown on the plate.

The Roman letter is composed of two weights of lines, and to misplace these is an inexcusable fault.
The rule for their correct ])lacing may be remembered easily by recalling that these letters were origi-
nally derived from manuscript forms, written with a broad nibbed reed pen, consequently in tracing the
shape of a letter as if writing it, all down strokes will be heavy while up strokes and horizontal strokes
will be light. Notice that thus all inclined strokes running downward from left to right are heavy, as
A M X r II' -V I' (Z is the one exception to this rule of direction).

The old Roman is a ligJil face letter, with the width of the heavy strokes from one-eighth to one-
tenth the height of the letter, and the light strokes one-half to two-thirds this width. A very important
feature in its ajipearance is the serif, or cross-mark at the end of each stroke and the. fillet that connects
it to the body of the letter.

Plates 78 and 79 give a working alphabet designed from Renaissance sources, and drawn to large
size for careful study. In this alphabet the width of the stem has been taken as one-tenth the height.
To show proportions each letter is drawn in a square divided into ten parts in each direction. In study-
ing these letters it will be well to draw them in ruled squares or on coordinate paper, to a size at least as
large as the copy, until the forms and proportions are very familiar. On the plates they have been
arranged in alphabetical order for convenient reference, but the beginner will tind it best to study the
letters in related groups, starting with the straight stroke letters I H T L E F. Draw the outlines of the
heavy strokes first, follow with the outlines of the light strokes, then draw the serifs and fillets. The
inclined stroke group .4 K M N V W X Y Z should then be taken up, beginning at the left side of each
letter to sketch the strokes. Observe the difference in the radii of the fillets on the two sides of an
inclined stroke and also as compared to the radius used on vertical strokes. Poorly drawn fillets will
inevitably spoil a letter.

O QC G are closely related. Notice that the outside curves are circle arcs. In large letters these
may be penciled with compasses, although all lettering should be inked entirely freehand. The inside
curves arc ellipses with their long axes tilted at an angle of about 15 degrees backward from the
vertical. Never make the mistake of tilting this shading the wrong way. As indicated in outline the
swash line of the Q may be extended ad libitum to fit the composition.

The next group contains the letters made up of straight lines and curves, B D J P RU, together with
S, the subtlety of whose reverse curve is sometimes difficult to master. Notice that all the curves in
these letters are in general similar to the O group in that their outside curves are circles, whose centers
are indicated, and the inside ellipses are tilted. Two forms oi J RQ and U are given, either of which
may be used. The swash line R is perhaps more difficult. Its tail should have a graceful sweep, not
"clubby" on the end.

The ampersand, "e?"," a monogram abbreviation for the Latin word "d," is made in a variety of
forms, sometimes with not so much flourish to the tail.

While numbers in Roman inscriptions were always in Roman numerals, Arabic figures are often
required in modern designing. Those given are of a character in keeping with Old Roman lettering.
Note their comparative height in proportion to the letters.

13s

PLATE 81

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ARCHITECTIRAL DRAWING

The first example on Plate 80 shows a variation with freer treatment than the forms of the previous
plates, and suitable for drawn or modeled execution rather than for carved work. In this the stems
instead of having exactly parallel sides are flared slightly and the serifs are not straight lines. These
variations are only "the width of a line" and must not be exaggerated, but it may be found interesting
to try the effect after a thorough mastery of the straight form.

On working drawings a sint^le stroke letter such as given in the third example on Plate 80 is generally
used. This letter is based on the skeleton of the Old Roman, having all its lines of the same width, and
made with a single stroke of a suitable pen. For letters of the size of those in the example a ball point
pen 516 ¥ or Hunt's sholpoint 512 may be used. For smaller sizes a Gillott 404 is good. The letters
should be kept to the same proportion of width to height as learned on Plates 78 and 79. Top and
bottom guide lines should always be drawn for all lettering, no matter how small or how rapid the execu-
tion. Indeed, architects often pur])osely leave the guide lines on the drawings to obscure irregularities
in the letters, and sometimes even ink them in with diluted ink for the same purpose.

Old Roman letters should never be extended wider than their normal proportion of width to height.
They may however be made in compressed form if desired. An interesting effect is secured by keeping
the round letters C D G O Q full, linking or conjoining them, while compressing the other letters. An
alphabet and example of composition are given on Plate 80.

Composilioii in lettering involves the selection of suitable styles and sizes, the arrangement, and the
spacing of letters, words and lines. Success in it depends upon artistic judgment rather than rules.
One rule however is important. Letters in words are not spaced at equal distances but are made toappear
uniform by keeping the irregularly shaped backgrounds between them to approximately equal area.
Each letter is spaced with reference to its shape and the shape of the letter preceding it. Thus adjacent
letters with straight sides would be spaced farther apart than those with curved sides. Sometimes
combinations such as A 7" or AV may even overlap. Words should be separated by a space not more
than the height of the letter. The clear distance between lines of letters may vary from one-fourth to
one and one-half times the height of the letter. Much observation and practice is required before one
is competent to do serious work. On Plates 80, 81, 83 and 84 examples of composition are shown, which
may be studied with profit. At the bottom of Plate 84 the device of using Roman with wide letter-
spacing is illustrated.

Titles on architectural drawings vary from the ordinary box title of a working drawing to carefully
designed compositions on elaborate display drawings. Several examples are shown on Plate 80. The
first is a full panel title, a form which is always correct and effective. To the right of it is an informal
title, a style sometimes used, which has a distinct advantage in not requiring careful preliminary pencil-
ing and therefore of value for quick sketches. Below these are two formal titles, the first a balanced
title and the second an enclosed title.

Working drawing titles will be found on Plates 21, 31 and others.

137

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In inscrijUion IcUering, the material usually being of one rolor, the letter is read by the shadow cast
by its incised or raised body, and hence must be designed with this in mind. The heavy strokes of
letters to be sunk in \' form in stone should be drawn of a width not less than one-eighth of the height,
with thin strokes about two-thirds of this amount. The word / XCISJ'ID on Plate 80 shows inscrij)tion
letters whose stems are 1 to 8. Hronze tablets are made either with_//a/ top or roiiiul /(;y> letters. Three
examples are shown on Plate 81. The first was designed by Carrere and Hastings, the second by
McKim, iMeade & White and the third by the writer. All were cast by Jno. Williams Inc., New York.
The letters on these tablets are i to 7'2 or wider.

Designs for execution in stone or bronze should be made as full size details on tracing paper. P'or
bronze castings allow one-eighth of an inch in 10 inches for shrinkage.

Uncial and Gothic. — These two historical styles of letters will be needed occasionally both in office
lettering and lettering in design. They may be found appropriate in putting the titles on the display
drawing of a Gothic structure, or in designing the inscription for a piece of ecclesiastical work.

These letters de\'eloped as manuscrij)t forms, written with single strokes of a broad pen. The word
Uncial, stricth' speaking, refers to the rounded form of the early centuries of the Christian era, descend-
ing directly from the Roman, but the term as used by designers covers the later developments from it of
built up or drawn capitals, particularly the Lombardic. They are sometimes used in all capitals,
although not easily read when used in this form. Their chief value is as initials in connection with
Gothic lower-case.

When used in carved work these letters are much more effective raised with flat top than sunk.
They should never be sunk in V shape. They lend themselves well to etched brass work, either raised
and polished on oxidized background, or sunk and enameled. When done in the latter method the
initials and ornament are often rubricated.

Gothic capitals are more complicated in form than Uncials, and generally not so good in design.
The letter known as Old English is to the general reader the most familiar form of Gothic. A definite
rule may be given: — Xrcer use all caps in Gothic.

Gothic lower-case changes from the round Gothic of the tenth century to the pointed Gothic of the
twelfth to fifteenth. As a written letter it is made with a broad pen turned at an angle of 45 degrees.
Large letters may be drawn in outline and filled in, or, by a skillful draftsman, may be made in single
stroke with a flat brush. The one recjuirement in Gothic lower-case is to keep letters close together.

141

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Plate 82 gives two Uncial (Lombardic) alphabets. The first is of simple form suitable for inscrip-
tions, and is drawn of a size sufficiently large to show its proportions. The width of the stem here is
one-sixth of the height, thus the construction square is div'ided into six parts each waw The second is a
pen-drawn form with some of the freedom of the medieval scribe indicated. It would be suitable for
painting or illuminating rather than carving.

Plate 83 gives an alphabet of Gothic capitals and corresponding lower-case, adaptable for carved
work. Below this is a round, written form of Gothic lower-case, which may be made in single stroke
with broad pen or flat brush. The pen-drawn Uncials of Plate 82 should be used as capitals with this
alphabet. An example of Gothic title by Bertram G. Goodhue is shown at the bottom of the plate.

Plate 84 is a slant or italic form known as French Script. It is effective for graceful, fanciful effects,
but the beginner should be reminded in advance that it is difficult of successful execution.

142

OUTLINE OF STUDY

Plate 76

This out lino will be of most value to the student who is working without the assistance of an in-
structor Inil will he found useful to the teacher as well, in laying out the work for his classes.

When the subjects are taken up in class, their order may be changed entirely from the outline or,
if the following order is used, the sequence of drawings in each part may be varied to a certain extent.

The student who is working alone is usually at a loss to know just how to attack a problem or how
to decide the order in which each part of the study should be made. The beginner is advised against
the outright copying of the drawings of this book except in the preliminary work and perhaps the details
of windows, doors, etc. It will be much better to use them as a general guide and to make the practice
sheets somewhat ditTerent.

The work is di\ided into Parts and under each Part may be taken up as many drawings as desired.
Enough should be done in each division to insure a thorough understanding of that particular step and
it would be a waste of time to proceed to the next Part until this mental grasp is secured.

Bear this in mind : The draunngs themselves will be of no value. It is only what the student learns while
maki>ii^ them that will he worth while.

Preparation. — Obtain a complete drawing outfit as described on pages 9 and 10. Saw a 36-inch roll
of tracing paper into two lengths of 24 and 12 inches each, these being convenient sizes for the following
problems. Buy a few yards of heavy detail paper, cut a piece the size of the board and fasten it down
with thumb tacks. This gives a smooth surface over which to draw even after the board has become
pitted with thumb tack holes, and is easih' renewed whenever necessary.

Sheet Size. — The practice sheets may of course be any size but a 13 by 18 inch sheet is a good size
with which to begin. On a piece of paper slightly larger than the finished sheet is to be, draw the outline
or cutting line of the sheet. Keep thumb tack holes, figuring, trial lines, etc., outside this line so that,
after completing the drawing, it may be trimmed along the line and a neatly fmished sheet will result.
Next draw a border line around the sheet ji inch inside the cutting line. One of the title spaces sug-
gested in the article on Lettering may now be added if desired but this is not necessary at present. The
first few sheets may be laid out on detail paper and the tracing paper used as suggested later.

Part One. — To become acquainted with the instruments, Plate 3, and their use, no better exercise
can be found than the drawing of a few of the geometric solutions on Plates 4 and 5. Divide the sheet
inside the border line into four equal parts by light lines and in each space draw one solution as large
as the space will permit. It might be well to draw eight of these geometric solutions or at least until
one is familiar with the instruments. Bear in mind during this practice that the object is to know the
instruments and to learn to work with greatest accuracy.

Part Two. — The draftsman can acquire the abihty to letter well only by long continued and careful
practice. Since skill in lettering is so important a part of the architectural draftsman's ecjuipment. he
should begin early in his study of the letter forms and composition, that he may acquire this practice
as he works along in the other departments of the subject. Every sheet must be made a lettering exer-
cise by carefully considering each letter, word and figure as it is drawn. Thus alone can be gained the

14.?

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

desired proficiency in presenting the many dimensions, notes and titles which must be used on architec-
tural work. It will not be necessary at this time to make an exhaustive study of lettering but the single
stroke Old Roman letters and figures of Plate 80 and something about composition of letters should be
learned before drawing the first plan.

On the first lettering sheet rule very lightly, with a sharp pencil, a number of guide lines as suggested
in the article on Lettering, then practice the single stroke letters and figures, studying each carefully.
Repeat them until they may be made with reasonable accuracy and speed. Draw also a few dimension
lines and arrows as shown on the drawings of Plates 21 to 30 noticing the form and proportions of the
arrows.

Part Three. — On Plate 76 are several plans and elevations which have been sketched freehand and
are not drawn to any definite scale. The simplest one of these may now be drawn at a scale of 14" =
i' — o" and dimensioned. Lay out a 13 by 18 inch sheet as before and after consulting the article
on Scale Dra\nngs and studying Plate 22 draw up and dimension the plan. This sheet should be kept
quite simple and, at its completion, the draftsman should have accjuired an elementary knowledge of
plan svmbols, drawing and dimensioning. Frequent reference to the te.xt and plates is absolutely
essential to gain the most from this sheet.

Part Four. — Fasten a sheet of tracing paper over the first floor plan which has just been completed
and draw the plan of the second floor. This involves more than is at first apparent. A preliminary
study of the layout of stairways must be made so that the stair of the second floor plan will tie up with
that of the first floor plan. Other stair drawings will be made later but a diagrammatic section should now
be made similar to that on Plate 59. This will aid in determining the number and location of risers and
treads, which information is necessary in preparing the plan. The basement plan would ordinarily be
drawn next, but it would illustrate the same points as the other two plans and so may be omitted as a
practice sheet if desired.

Part Five. — Working on tracing paper over the plans, lay out the front elevation, then a side eleva-
tion as suggested by the sketch, Plate 76. These drawings will necessitate a study of elevations on page
50, a careful look at Plates 21 to 30 and at the window elevations on the detail plates. Before attempt-
ing these two sheets, read again the articles on scale drawings and dimensioning and, if possible, look
at a number of residence elevations in the architectural magazines. Constant reference should be made
to these helps as the work progresses. The drawing of a wall section as described on page 50 should be
studied carefully in connection with these sheets.

Part Six. — A scale detail of a part of the elevation may now be made at ^i" = i' — o". Select
an interesting portion such as that containing the main entrance or an equally good subject. This
should present about the information that is given on Plate 28 or the Breakfast Bay of Plate 29. Study
closely these plates and the article on page 51.

144

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

Part Seven. — Work out a t>pical double-hung or casement window detail depending on which type
is used in the house. Study the notes accom])anying the detail and try to commit the drawing to mem-
ory as the work is done. This sheet should contain drawings made at two dilTerent scales. Draw an
elevation (half outside and half inside) similar to that on Plate 49 and, beside it, a complete vertical
section. Below the elevation draw a complete horizontal section or plan. These three drawings should
be made at a scale of -Ki" = i' = o". The larger detailed sections should be made at a scale of 3" =
i' - o".

Part Eight. — Details of the interior are next in order. They should be drawn at a scale of j^" =
i' — o" with larger scale and sometimes full-size sections of the parts where needed. An excellent
exercise here would be to draw the plan of a kitchen conforming with the requirements of the Kitchen
Score Card of page 17. Study also Plate 30 and the text. After the plan is drawn, work out details
of the cu])boards, etc., at the scale desired.

Part Nine. — .'\fter having secured a reasonable mastery of the drawings necessary for a simple
residence, the student might proceed with one more complicated or of a different material and detail.
Another valuable exercise at this time would be to measure up a simple residence and make a set of
drawings of it. This must be done whenever extensive remodeling is to be undertaken.

Part Ten. — The jMctorial methods might well be taken up next, particularly perspective. .A.fter a
study of the method, a perspective of the house previously drawn might be made.

Part Eleven. — A study of the Orders of Architecture would now give the student a knowledge of
the details of more jiretentious buildings. A drawing should be made of each Order and its principal
proportions committed to memory. These drawings should be done on water-color paper as they make
ideal subjects for practice in rendering the shades and shadows. Use Whatman's cold pressed paper,
Imperial size, for this pur]:)ose. On each sheet draw the complete Order at a small scale and at as large
a scale as possible draw the entablature, column capital, and base (leaving out a section of the shaft),
and the pedestal. Plate 17, which is an example of student work, will give an idea as to how the sheet
may be laid out and a suggestion for a background. The student may use his ingenuity here to produce
a great variety of interesting backgrounds. In connection with a study of the Orders should come a
practice sheet of the Acanthus Leaf as described on page 125 and Plate 74, and some attention to the
Mouldings of page 127 and Plate 75.

Part Twelve. — The subject of Shades and Shadows, page ^^, might be studied now and as many
sheets devoted to its application as the student sees fit. On the first sheet draw and work out the shad-
ows of a few simple block combinations, making use of the fundamentals as suggested on Plate 13. .\fter
these are understood, a more complicated object such as that of Plate 14, might be considered.
The Orders of Architecture then make excellent subjects, for further study and practice.

Part Thirteen.— Having drawn the shadows of a few objects, the next subject for attention is
Rendering. Study the text, pages 43 and 45, and follow the instructions there given as to the first prac-
tice sheet which is illustrated on Plate 18. Here, again, the Orders will serve as practice exercises if
desired after which the student may choose such further subjects as he may fancy.

145

REFERENCE BOOKS

The piihlishcrs iire named at Ihc end of tlic lisl.

ACOUSTICS

Acoustics of Audiloriums.
by F. R. Watson.

ARCHITPXTURAL EQUIPMENT

Sweet's Catalogue. (An extensive catalogue of architec-
tural equipment and manufacturers.)
by Sweet's Catalogue Service, Inc., New York.

CONSTRUCTION AND SUPER-
INTENDENCE

Building Construction and Superintendence.^

by !•". E. Kidder.

Part I. Masonry and Plastering.
Part II. Carpenter Work.
Part III. Trussed Roofs and Roof Trusses.
Elements of Structures.''

by George A. Hool.
Framed Structures and Girders.'

by Edgar Marburg.
Strength of Materials.'

by James E. Boyd.
Designing and Detailing of Simple Steel Structures.'

by Clyde T. Morris.
Architectural Engineering.'*

by J. K. Freitag.
Reinforced Concrete.'

by Buel and Hill.
Concrete Engineers' Handbook.'

by Hool and Johnson.
Architectural Terra Cotta.'' (Standard Construction.)

by National Terra Cotta Society, New York.

DESIGN

Architectural Composition.^

by John Beverly Robinson.
The Honest House.' (Small House Design.)

by Ruby Ross Goodnow.
Elements of Classic Architecture.' (French.)

by Gromort.
Indication in Architectural Design.^

by David J. Varon.

Classic and Renaissance Architecture.'

by Joseph Btihlman.
Church Building."

by Ralph Adams Cram.
Lessons in Decorative Design.'"

by Jackson.
City Planning."

by Charles Mulford Robinson.

DETAn.S

Building Details.'^ (Portfolios.)

by Frank M. Snyder.
Architectural Terra Cotta.* (Standard Construction.)

by National Terra Cotta Society, New York.

DICTIONARY

Dictionary of .Architecture and Building."
by Russell Sturgis.

MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

Condensed Catalogues of Mechanical Equipment with a
General Classified Directory. The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.

Chemical Engineering Catalogue. (Chemical Machinery
and Supplies.) The Chemical Catalogue Com-
pany, Inc., I Madison Ave., New York.

DRAWING

Engineering Drawing.' (A complete elementary treatise
on orthographic projection drawing.)
by Thomas E. French.
Machine Drawing.^

by Carl L. Svensen.
Figure Drawing.'"
by Hatton.

ESTIMATING

Contractors' and Builders' Handbook.'''
by William Arthur.

FIREPROOFING

The Fireproofing of Steel Buildings.''
by J. K. Freitag.

147

ARCHITECTrR.\L DRAWING

HANDBOOKS

The Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book.^

by F. E. Kidder.
The Civil Engineer's Pocket Book.'=

by J. C. Trautwine.
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook.^

by Lionel S. Marks.
The ^Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book.^

by Wm. Kent.
American Electricians' Handbook.^

by Terrell Croft.
Handbook for Electrical Engineers.^

by Harold Pender.
Cambria Steel.

by Cambria Steel Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
Carnegie Steel Companies' Pocket Companion.

by Carnegie Steel Company. Pittsburgh, Pa.

HEATING

Hot Water Heating and Fitting.'
by Wm. J. Baldwin.

HISTORY

General.-

— History of Architecture.'^
by Banister Fletcher.
History of Architectural Development.'*

by F. M. Simpson.
History of Architecture. '^

by Russell Sturgis.
History of .Architecture.'*
by James Ferguson.
Classic. — The Architecture of Greece and Rome."

by W. J. Anderson and R. Phen6 Spiers.
English. — Gothic Architecture in England.'-'
by Francis Bond.
Later Renaissance .Architecture in England."
by John Belcher and M. E. Macartney.
History of Renaissance Architecture in
England.-"
by R. T. Blomfn-ld.
Classic Architecture in Great Britain and
Ireland, During the Eighteenth anri
Nineteenth Centuries."
by A. Richardson.
FRENCn.— The Architecture of the Renaissance in France.'"
by W. H. W^ard.
Medieval Archi lecture."
by A. Kingsley Porter.
Italian. — The Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy.'"
by W. J. Anderson.
History of Architecture in Italy. 2'
by C. A. Cummins.

Spanish. — Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in
Spain. '^
by A. N. Prentice.
C0LONI.A.L. — The Georgian Period. (.A series of port-
folios).
by The American .Architect and
Building News Company, Boston.
The Colonial Homes of Philadelphia and Its
Neighborhood.'"
by H. D. Eberline.

ILLUMINATION

The Art of Illumination.'

by Louis Bell.
Electric Light Wiring.'

by C. E. Kno.x.
Practical Illumination.'

by J. R. Cravath and V. R. Lansingh.
Radiation, Light and Illumination.'

by Charles P. Steinmetz.

LAW

Architect, Owner and Builder Before the Law."
by T. M. Clark.

LETTERING

The Alphabet.'''

by F. W. Goudy.
Lettering."

by Thomas Wood Stevens.
Letters and Lettering.'-^-

by Frank Chouteau Brown.
The Essentials of Lettering.'

by French and Meiklejohn.

ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE

The Greek and Roman Orders.-'

by Mauch.
Elements of .Architecture.-''

by Pierre Esquie.
Fragments d'Architecture Antique."

by H. d'Espouy.
Vignola.*

by Arthur L. Tuckerman.

ORNAMENT

The Evolution of An hiteclural Ornament.'"

by Middleton.
Styles of Ornament.'-'

by Alexander Spcllz.
Handbook of Ornament.''

bv F. S. Mever.

148

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING

The Art of Color Decoration.'"

by J. D. Grace.
Garden Ornament. '•■■

by Gertrude Jekyll.

PAINTING

The Analysis of Paints ami Painting Materials.'
by Henry A. Gardner and
John .-K. SchaefTer.

PERSPECTIVE

Perspective. 2nd ed."

by Lubschoz.
Applied I'ers[)ective.-'

by Lonjifellow.
Handbook of Persi)ective."

by Otto Fuchs.
Modern Perspective.'''

bv Wm. R. Ware.

PIPING

A Handbook on Piping."
by Carl L. Svensen.

PLUMBING

Principles and Practice of Plumbing.^'

by J. J. Cosgro\e.
Plumbers', Steam Filters' and Tinners' Handbook.^

by H. G. Richey.

RENDERING

Architectural Rendering in Wash.'"

by McGonigle.
Architectural Sketching and Drawing in Perspective."

by H. W. Roberts.
Pen Drawing. ^^

by Maginnis.
Architectural and Decorative Drawings. ^^ (Examples of
pen and ink rendering.)

by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue.
Coaching Days and Coaching Ways." (Examples of pen
rendering.)

by W. Outram Tristram.
Indication in Architectural Design.''

by David J. Varon.
Pencil Points (magazine). (Examples of pencil and wash
rendering.)

by The Pencil Points Press Inc., New York.
Light and Shade and Their Applications.'

by M. Luckiesh.
A Collection of Color Prints.'

by Jules Guerin and Maxfield Parish.

Water CoU)r Painting.'"

by Rich.
Pencil Sketching.''"

by Harry 'W. Jacobs.
Architectural Rendering in Pen and Tnk.^°

by Frank Allison Hays.
Fragments d' Architecture Antique.-^

by H. d'Espouy.

SHADES AND SHADOWS

Shades and Shadows.-'^

by Henry McGoodwin.

WATERPROOFING

Modern Methods of Waterproofing.'
by Myron H. Lewis.

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149

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

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ISO

ARCHITECTURAL AND BUILDING TERMS

Abacus. The to|)niosi (li\ision ol tlu' capiial of a
column. See Plate 63.

Abutment of an Arch. The mass of masonry which
resists ihc llirusi of the arch. That against which the
ends of the arch rest.

Aisle. The side portion of a building, separated from
the center portion usually by columns or piers.

Angle Iron. A structural iron shape whose cross sec-
tion is in the form of a letter L.

Annulets. The band of small mouldings at the bottom
of the Echinus of the Greek Doric capital. See Plate 64.

Antae. A pilaster attached to a wall.

Apron. The finished board placed immediately below
a window stool. See Plate 49.

Arcade. A series of arches.

Architect's Scale. See page 9 and Plate 3.

Architrave of a Door or Window. The moulded finish
around the opening.

Architrave of an Entablature. The lower division of
the entablature. See Plate 63.

Arris. The edge formed by the intersecting of two
surfaces.

Ashlar. The outside cut stone facing of a wall.

Astragal. A small moulding of circular section. See
column capital of Plate 63. .\lso the moulding separating
two doors, etc. See the sliding door of Plate 52.

Attic. That part of a classic structure that occurs
above the cornice level. Also the space immediately
under the roof of a house.

Back-band. The outside member of a window or door
casing. See Plate 49.

Back Hearth. That part of the hearth inside the fire-
place. See Plate 61.

Backing. The inner [)orlion of a wall.

Balcony. A platform projecting from the building
wall.

Balloon Frame. See Plate 46.

Base. The lower member of a column or a building.

Base Board. The finishing board covering the plaster
wall where it meets the floor.

Batten. A strip of board for use in fastening other
boarfls together.

Batter. The slope of the face of a wall that is not
plumb. See Plate 37.

Batter Boards. Boards set up at the corners of a pro-
posed building from which are stretched the lines mark-
ing off the walls, etc.

Bay. A comparatively small projecting portion of a
building. Also one division of an arcade or the space
between two columns.

Beam. A large horizontal structural member support-
ing lloors, etc.

Bond. The connection between the bricks or stones
of a masonry wall formed by overlapping the pieces.

Box Frame. A window frame containing boxes for the
sash weights. See Plate 49.

Bridging. A cross-bracing built between joist and studs
to add stiffness to floors and walls.

Building Line. — The line of the outside face of a building
wall. Also the line on a lot beyond which the law forbids
that a building be erected.

Building Paper. A heavy, more or less waterproof
paper for use in insulating the walls, floors and roofs of
buildings.

Buttress. An enlargement or projection of a wall to
resist the thrust of an arch, etc.

Butts. Hinges designed to be screwed to the edge
or butt of a door or window and the inside of the
frame.

Camber. The convex curve of the edge of a joist or
other member.

Carriage. The framing timber which is the direct
support of the stair steps. See Plate 59.

Casement. A window whose frame is hinged at the
side to swing out or in. See Plate 51.

Catch Basin. — A simple cast iron or cement receptacle
into which the water from a roof, area way, etc., will
drain. It is connected with a sewer or tile drain.

CaulicoU. The stalks which spring from the second
row of leaves of the Corinthian capital and extend up to
form the volutes under the corners of the abacus.

Centering. The false work upon which is built masonry
arches, concrete slabs, etc. In concrete work the centering
is also known as the forms.

Channel. A structural steel shape.

Client. The employer of the architect. The owner
who entrusts the carrying out of his building project to
the designer and engineer.

Cofifer. A deeply recessed panel, usually in a ceiling
or dome.

Collar Beam. A horizontal timber lieing two opposite
rafters together at a more or less central point of the
rafters.

Colonnade. A coiuinuous series of columns.

151

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

Console. A supporting bracket usually ornamented
by a re\erse scroll.

Compasses. An instrument for drawing circles.

Coped Joint. A joint between moulded pieces in
which a portion of one member is cut out to receive the
moulded part of the other member.

Corbel. A bracket formed on a wall by building out
successive courses of masonry.

Comer Bead. A metal bead to be built into plaster
corners to prevent accidental breaking off of the plaster.

Cornice. The part of a roof which projects beyond the
wall. The upper main division of a classic entablature.
See Plate 63.

Corona. The plane center member of a classic cornice.
See Plate 63.

Court. An open space surrounded partly or entirely
by a building.

Cresting. The ornamental finish of a roof ridge or the
top of a wall.

Cupola. .\ small cylindrical or polygonal structure on
the top of a dome.

Curtain Wall. A thin wall supported independent of
the wall below, every one or two stories, by the structural
steel or concrete frame of the building.

Cyma. One form of a moulding. See Plate 75.

Cymatium. The name given to a cyma moulding when
it is used as a crowning moulding.

Dentils. Rectangular supporting blocks beneath the
cornice of an entablature. See Plate 66.

Diaper. An over-all decorative i)attern.

Die. The plane center member of a pedestal. When
continu<)u> it is called a Podium. See Plate 62.

Dividers. .Xn instrument for stepping off equal divisions.
See Plate 3.

Dormer. A structure projecting from a sloping roof,
usually to accommodate a window. See Plates 24 and

25-

Drain. A means of carrying off waste water. See
also House Drain.

Drip Mould. A moulding designed to prevent rain
water from running clown the face of a wall; used also to
protect the bottom of floors, windows, etc., from leakage.

Echinus. The half-round moulded part of a column
ca[)ilal directly below the abacus.

Elevations. Drawings of the walls of a building, usu-
ally made as though the observer were looking straight at
the wall. See fiage 7 and Plate 2.

Escutcheon Plate. The protective metal plate at a
keyhole. .Sometimes merely an ornamental plate around
an o[)ening.

Extrados. '! Ik- name applied in ihc upper or outside
curving line of an ar( li.

Face Brick. Csually a special brick used for "facing"
a wall.

Fenestration. The distribution or arrangement of
windows in a wall.

Finial. The ornamental termination of a pinnacle,
consisting of leaf forms, etc.

Flange. The upper and lower cross parts of a steel I
beam or channel. A projecting rib.

Flashing. The sheet metal work to prevent leakage
over windows, doors, etc., and around chimneys and at
other roof details.

Floor Plan. The horizontal section through a building
showing size and location of rooms, also doors, windows,
etc., in the walls.

Footing. The spread portion at the bottom of a base-
ment wall or column to prevent settlement.

Freestone. A soft, easily worked variety of sand-
stone.

Fresco. Painting on fresh plaster before it has dried.
Commonly, though incorrectly, used for any painting on
plaster.

Frieze. That part of a classic entablature between the
cornice and the architrave. See Plate 63.

Furring. The leveling up or building out of a part of a
wall or ceiling by wood strips, etc.

Gable. The triangular portion of an end wall formed
by the sloping roof.

Gable Roof. One sloping up from two walls only.

Gain. The mortise or notch cut out of a timber to
receive the end of a beam.

Gambrel Roof. A roof having two different slopes such
as the house of Plate 24.

Gargoyle. A projecting ornamental water spout to
throw the roof water clear of the walls below.

Girder. A large horizontal structural member, usu-
ally heavier than a beam and used to support the ends of
joists and beams, or to carry walls o\'er openings.

Girt. The hea\y horizontal timber carrying the second
floor joist in a braced frame building. See Plate 46.

Grade. The level of the ground around a building.

Grille. A protective metal screen, sometimes highly
ornamented.

Groined Vaulting. A ceiling fornu'd by several inter-
secting cyliiiilii( al vaults.

Ground. Stri])S of wood the thickness of the plaster
of a wall, secured to the framing. They aid the ])lasterer
and afterward serve as nailing strips for securing the wood
finish.

Grout. A thin mortar for filling u]i spaces dilTicult of
access or where the liea\-ier mortar would not penetrate.

Guttae. The drops used for enriching the (Ireek Doric-
Order of Plate 64 :in(l the Mulular Doric of Plate 65.
They are lylindrical in the first and conical in the second
example.

Gutter. A trough or depression for carrying olT
water.

152

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

Halving. A method of splicing the ends of two timbers
by cutting half of each away and overlapping these parts.
The joint is thus the same size as the timbers.

Hanging Stile. The vertical part of a door or casement
window lo wiiich the hinge is fastened.

Hatching. The shading of an imaginary cut surface
by a series of parallel lines. See Plate 21.

Head Room. The \ertical clearance on a stairway or in
a room. .See Plate 59.

Hearth. The vitreous portion of a tloor in front of a
fireplace. See also Back Hearth and Plate 61.

Heel. The end of a rafter that rests on the wall j^late.

Herring-bone. The name given to masonry work when
laid up in a zig-zag pattern. It is usually found in brick
work.

Hip-roof. One sloping up from all walls of the building.

Hood. The small roof over a doorway, supported by
brackets or consoles.

House Drain. The horizontal piping beneath the
basement lloor of a building, which carries off the discharge
from all soil and waste lines to a point outside the building.

House Sewer. The drainage pipe connecting with the
house drain at a point about 5 feet outside the building
and leading to the sewer or other place of disposal.

Housiog. The part cut out of one member so as to
receive another. Sec the housing of the stair step into
the wall string on Plate 59.

Hypotrachelium. That part of the Greek Doric capital
that occurs directly beneath the annulets of the echinus.

Impost. The top member of a wall, pier, etc., from
which springs an arch. It may be the capital of a pier or
just a moulding on a wall.

Incise. To cut into, as letters incised or carved into
stone.

Intercolumniation. The clear space between columns.

Intrados. The name applied to the lower or inside
curving line of an arch.

Jamb. The inside vertical face of a door or window
frame.

Joist. The framing timbers which arc the direct
support of a floor.

Key-stone. The center top stone of an arch.

Label. The ornamental drip moulding over an arch.

Lancet Window. .\ high narrow window pointed like
a lance at the top.

Lantern. The small structure projecting above a dome
or roof for light or ventilation.

Lean-to. A small building against the side of another
and having a roof sloping away from the larger structure.

Lintel. The horizontal structural member supporting
the wall over an opening.

Lobby. .\n entrance hall or waiting room.

Loggia. .\ hall within a building but open on one
side, this side being usually supported by a colonnade.

Lookout. A short timber for supporting tlu- projecting
cornice. See the bo.\ cornice of Plate 55.

Louver. A ventilating window covered by sloping
slats to exclude rain.

Mansard Roof. A hipped roof having two slopes
similar to the gambrel roof of Plate 24.

Mantel. The shelf and other ornamental work around
a ti replace.

Marquetry. An ornamental surface built up of small
pieces of various hard woods to form a pattern. Inlaid
work.

Medallion. A round or elli])tical raised surface, usually
for ornamental purposes.

Meeting Rail. The horizontal rails of window frames
that fit together when the window is closed. See Plate 50.

Metope. That part of the frieze between the triglyphs
of the I )oric Order. See Plates 64, 65, and 66.

Mezzanine. A low secondary story contained in a
higli storv.

Mill-work. The finished wood work, machined and
[)artly assembled at the mill.

Minaret. A Turkish turret with balconies.

Miter. A beveled surface cut on the ends of mouldings,
etc., that they may member at points where they change
direction.

ModiUion. An ornamental bracket sujjporting a cor-
nice. See Plate 70.

Module. An accepted division for measuring propor-
tions of the Orders of Architecture. It is taken as one-
half of the base diameter of the column. See page 105
and Plate 70.

Mullion. The large vertical division of a window
opening. In grouped windows it is the member that
separates the sash of each unit.

Muntins. The small members that divide the glass in
a window frame.

Mutules. The rectangular blocks supporting the
cornice of the Mutular Doric Order. See Plate 65.

Narthex. A hall or lobby at the entrance of a church.

Nave. The main or central portion of a church audito-
rium.

Necking. The middle member of a simi)le column
capital. See Plate 63.

Newel. The post where the handrail of a stair starts or
changes direction.

Niche. A recess in a wall; often to accommodate a
piece of statuary.

Ogee. A reverse or letter S curve. Applied also to
mouldings of this section.

Oriel Window. A projecting upper story window. A
small bay.

Orientation. The direction of facing of a building.

Paleography. A study of ancient inscriptions and
writings.

1.53

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

Panel. A piece of wood framed about by other pieces.
It may be raised above or sunk below the face of the fram-
ing pieces.

Parapet. That part of a wall projecting above a roof.

Parting Strip. The strip in a double hung window frame
that keeps the upper and lower sash apart. See Plate 49.

Parts. The thirty equal divisions into which the module
is divided for convenience. See page 105 and Plate 70.

Party Wall. A division wall common to two adjacent
pieces of property.

Pendent. Usually applied to ornamental hanging parts
of a Gothic vaulted ceiling.

Pendentives. The structure at the upper corners of a
square building which rounds the building at the top
preparatory to receiving a round dome. They may be in
the form of brackets or arches.

Pent-roof. A lean-to or roof sloping one way only.

Perch. A means of measuring quantities of rubble
stone. A perch contains 16}^ cubic feet.

Pier. A rectangular masonry support either free-
standing or built into a wall.

Pilaster. When an attached pier becomes very high
in proportion to its width, it is called a pilaster.

Piling. Wood or concrete posts driven down into soft
earth to provide a safe footing for heavy loads. See
Plate 39.

Pitch of Roof. A term applied to the amount of slope.
It is found by dividing the height by the span.

Plan. Sec Floor Plan.

Plancher or Planceer. The soffit of a cornice or corona.
See the bo,x cornice of Plate 55.

Plaster Ground. See Ground.

Plate. The top, horizontal timber of a wall. The
attic joist, roof rafters, etc., rest on and are secured to the
plate.

Plinth. The block that forms the bottom member of a
column base.

Plumb. Vertical; parallel to a plumb line.

Podium. The die or body of a continuous pedestal.
See Plate 62.

Porch. A covered shelter on the outside of a building.

Priming. The first coat of paint or varnish, mi.\ed and
applied so as to fill the pores of the surface i)re])aratory
to receiving the subsequent coats.

Proscenium. The front part of a theatre stage includ-
ing the arch over the stage.

Pulley Stile. The vertical sides of a double-hung
winrjow frame on which are fastened ihe pulleys for the
sash weights. See Plate 49.

Purlins. Structural memljcrs spanning from truss lo
truss and supjjorling the rafters of a roof.

Quoins. Large cut stones at the corners of a masonry
wall. They form an ornamental corner and also a stop-
page for the stone or brick work of the wall proper.

Rail. The horizontal top member of a balustrade.
Also the horizontal members of windows and doors. See
Plates 49 and 52.

Raking. Inclined from the horizontal.

Random Work. Applied to stone work that is not laid
up in regular order but just as the stones come to hand.

Rebate. A recessed angle to recei\'e a window or door
frame, etc. See Plate 51.

Regula. The plane block beneath the triglyph and
taenia of the Doric Order. See Plate 66.

Relieving Arch. A masonry arch built over an opening
to sujiport the backing of a wall when the wall face is
carried by a lintel.

Reredos. The screen behind an altar.

Return. The turning back of a moulding, belt-course,
etc., into the wall on which it is located or around a
corner of the building.

Reveal. The ]irojection of a frame or moulding beyond
the wall which carries it. .'Mso the jamb of a window or
door frame between the window or door and the face of
the wall.

Ridge. The top edge of the roof where two slopes meet.

Rostrum. An elevated speaker's platform.

Rotunda. The circular space under a dome.

Roughcast. Stucco when thrown against the wall to
form a rough finish. Sometimes applied to roughly
troweled work.

Rubble. Roughly broken quarry stone.

Rubrication. The coloring of a background by paint,
enamels, etc.

Ruling Pen. See page 10 and Plate 3.

Saddle. .\ small double-sloping roof to carry the water
away from the back of chimneys, etc.

Salon. A large and magnificent room.

Scagliola. A plaster imitation of colored marble.

Scale. .•\n instrument used for measurement. See
page g and Plate 3. Scale in design is the feeling of size
which is produced by the judicious use of familiar details
such as steps, windows, etc.

Scamillus. The groove which separates the h\po-
trachelium or necking of the Greek Doric column from
the shaft. See Plate 64.

Scantling. A piece of framing timber about 2 by
4 inches in section.

Scarfing. A method of lap-jointing of timbers in such
a way that the joint is no larger than the seition of the
timbers.

Scratch Coat. The first coat of plaster which is
scratched or scored in form a good bond lor the second
coat.

Screeds. Strijis of plaster about S indies wide and
the depth of the lirsl two coals, which are |)ut on first
and trued up carefully to serve as guides in bringing the
|)lasterefl surfaces lo true planes.

154

ARLIIITIXTLR.VL DRAWING

Scribing. 'Vo mark or til one edge of a board, elc, lo
an irregular surface.

Shaft. 'I'hal part of a column l)etween ilie lapital and
the base. See Plates 62, 63, etc.

Sheathing. The rougli l)oardinp on the outsideof a wail
or roof owr which is laid the finished siding or the shingles.

Shoring. Timbers braced against a wall to form a
temjiorary support where it is necessary to remove the
wall below.

Show Rafter. .\ short rafter, often ornamented, where
it may be seen below the cornice. See Plate 57.

Sill. The stone or wood member across the bottom of
a door or window opening on the outside of the building.
Also the bottom timber on which a building frame rests.
See Plate 46.

Site. The location of a building.

Skew-back. The first stone of an arch, having a
horizontal bottom and a sloping top face.

Skirting. See Base Board.

Sleepers. The timbers laid on a firm foundation to
carry and secure the superstructure.

Slip Joint. A joint made so as to allow a certain amount
of movement of the parts joined without sjilitting or
otherwise injuring them.

Smoke Chamber. That part of the Hue directly above
the fireplace. See Plate 61.

Soffit. The underneath surface of a beam, lintel, arch,
etc.

Soil Pipe. The branch pipe that connects the closet or
urinal with the soil stack.

Soil Stack. The vertical pipe line that leads from the
soil pipe to the house drain.

Span. The distance between supports of a joist, beam,
etc.

Specifications. The written or printed description of
materials, workmanship, etc., that accompany the working
drawings of a building.

Standing Finish. The wood finish secured to the walls.

Stile. The vertical members of a built up part such as
a door, window, panel, etc. See Plate 52.

Stool. The wood shelf across the bottom and inside of
a window. See Plate 49.

String. The supporting timber at the end of stair steps.
See Plate 59.

Stucco. Cement plaster for outside work.

Style (of architecture). The distinguishing character-
istics as fi.xed by the Order used or by the type of roof,
windows, doors, walls and other details in combination.

Stylobate. The stepped base of a Greek temple. See
Plate 64.

Sump. A depression in a roof, etc., to receive the rain
water and deliver it to the down-spout. See Plate 55.

Taenia. The flat division band between the architrave
and the frieze of the Doric Order. See Plate 64.

Templet. A pattern for use in cutting irregular stones
suih as the voussoirs of an arch, etc.

Terrace. A raised bank of earth.

Terra Cotta. A burned cla\- of line finality, much used
for ornamental work on the exterior of buildings.

Thimble. The short horizontal [)ipe leading through a
chimney wall into the Hue.

Threshold. The stone, wood or metal jiiece directly
under a door.

Throat. The opening from a firei)lace into the smoke
clianiber. See Plate 61.

Tongue. A projecting bead cut on the edge of one
board to fit into a corresponding groove on the edge of
another piece.

Tracery. Ornamental curving bars across an opening.
They usually occur in Gothic buildings and are cut from
stone. See Plate 37.

Transom. The horizontal member which divides an
opening into parts; see Plate 51. It is also applied to a
small window built over a door.

Transom Bar. Same as the first use of Transom.

Trap. A water-seal in a sewage system lo jjrevent
sewer gas from entering the building.

Tread. The horizontal board or surface of a step.

TreUis. .'\n ornamental lattice made up of wooden
strips to support vines.

Triangle. One of the drawing instruments described
on page 9 and Plate 3.

Triglyph. A groo\ed plate, ornamenting the frieze of
the Doric Order. See Plates 64, 65, and 66.

Trim. The finishing frame around an opening.

Trimmer Arch. The supporting arch beneath a hearth.
See Plate 61.

Truss. A framework made up of triangular units for
supporting loads over long spans. See Plate 36.

T Square. A drawing instrument for ruling parallel
horizontal lines. See page 9 and Plate 3.

Tympanum. The triangular portion of wall under the
sloping cornice of a classic building.

Underpinning. A new part of a wall or pier, built
under an existing part.

Valley. The gutter formed by the intersection of two
roof slopes.

Valley Rafter. The rafter extending along under a
valley.

Vault. An arched ceiling or roof.

Veneer. A thin covering of valuable material over a
less expensive bod\\

Vent Pipes. Small ventilating pipes extending from
each fixture of the plumbing system to the vent stack.

Vent Stack. The vertical pipe connecting with the
vent pipes and extending through the roof. It carries off
the gasses and prevents the water-seal from siphoning
out of the traps.

15s

ARCHITECTUR.\L DRAWING

Verge Boards. The boards suspended from the verge
of a gable. They are sometimes highly ornamented.

Vestibule. A small entrance room.

Vista. A view down an avenue or a path between
shrubbery, etc.

Volute. A feature of the Ionic capital. See Plates
67 and 68.

Voussoir. One of the sections or blocks of an arch.

Wainscot. An ornamental or protective covering of
walls, often consisting of wood panels.

Wall Plate. See Plate 46.

Waste Pipe. The pipe connecting lavatories and sinks
with the waste stack.

Waste Stack. The vertical pipe which conducts waste
water from the waste pipes to the house drain.

Water Table. A projecting, sloping member around a
building near the ground to throw the rain water away
from the wall.

Weather Boarding. The finished horizontal boarding
of an outside wall. See Plate 24.

Wing. A section of a building extending out from the
main part.

Wreath. The curved portion of a hand rail as at a
landing. See Plate 59.

Yoke. The horizontal top member of a window frame.
See Plate 49.

156

INDEX

A Center lines 47

Channels of Greek Doric 109

Abacus, see Orders of Architecture. Church door detail Plate 54

Acanthus leaf 125 Classic orders 105

Plate 74 Plates 62-73

Acoustics, see Reference books. Cleveland discount building 77

Alphabets, see Lettering. Plates 39-45

Ampersand 135 Column entasis 123

Angular perspective 23 Plate 73

Annulets, see Orders of Architecture. Columns 105

Arabic numerals 135 Combination frame Plate 46

Plates 78 & 79 Comparison of Orders of Architecture Plate 62

Architect's scale 9 Compasses 10

Architectural and building terms 151-156 Composite Order 121

design, see Reference books. Plate 72

equipment, see Reference books. Composition in lettering 137

history, ife Reference books. Plates 80, 81,

magazines 149 83 & 84

ornament, see Reference books. Cone, shadow of 37

rendering 43 Construction and superintendence,

Architecture, Orders of 105 see Reference books.

Plates 62-73 Contour line 65

Arris 109 • Plate 31

Artificial light, see Hand books on Contour map 65

illumination. Plate 31

Attic Ionic base Plate 69 113 Conventional light ray ^3

shadows of Plate 14 Coordinate paper, use of 53

Attic Ionic Order Plate 69 Corinthian Order

Greek 121

Roman 121

Plates 70 & 71

Balanced title 137 shadows of Plate 17

Plate 80 Cornice details Plates 55, 56

Balloon frame Plate 46 & 57

Basement window details Plates 47 & 48 Cost of buildings, see Reference

Battened door Plate 52 books.

Bedrooms 19 Current architectural magazines 149

Bench mark 65 Cylinder, shadow of 37

Blue prints 52 Cyma recta, see Mouldings Plate 75

Books, reference 147-150 Cyma reversa, see Mouldings Plate 75

Box title 137 Cymatium, see Orders of Archi-

Braced door Plate 52 lecture.

Bristol board 10

Bronze letters 141 t\

tablets Plate 81

Building terms 151-156 Denticular Doric Order 112

Plate 66
Q Design, architectural, see Reference

books.

Casement window details Plate 51 Detail drawings 85

Cavetto, see Mouldings Plate 75 Plates 46-61

157

INDEX

Detail paper lo

Details, scale 51

books on, see Reference books.

of interior 73

Plate 36
Dictionary, architectural, see Refer-
ence books.

Dimensioning 51

Dimensions of furniture : iq

Dining room 16

Dividers 10

Door details Plates 52, 53

«fc 54

Doors and windows, location of 47 Frontispiece.

Doorways, width and height of 47

Doric Order, Denticular 112

Plate 66
shadows of Plate 15

Double hung window details Plates 49-50

Double swinging door detail Plate 52

Drawing board 9

Drawing, books on, see Reference books

ink 10

instruments 9-10

Floor system, combination tile and concrete 69

Plate ss
reinforced concrete 69

Plate is

Floors and walls, kitchen 17

Footing plan t-. Plate 39

Formal title 137

Plate 80
Foundation plan, office building. . . Plate 39

Framing of wooden buildings Plate 46

French curve g

French script 142

Plate 84

Furniture dimensions ig

Furniture space 19

Echinus, see Orders of Architecture.
Egyptian Order, Temple of Karnak Plate 62

Elevations 7-16-50

of broken ashlar

Plate 34

Geometric methods 1 1

Plates 4 & s

Glass, window 47

Gothic alphabet Plate 83

Grade line 50

Graphic methods of representation 5

Plates I & 2

Greek Acanthus leaf Plate 74

Corinthian Order 121

Doric Order 109

Plate 64

73 Ground line (perspective) 21

Guide to study 143

Ellipse 13 Guttae, see Orders of Architecture

Enclosed title 137 Gutter detail Plates 55-57

Plate 80

Entablature 105 11

Entasis of column 123

Plate 7^ iiand books, see Reference books.

Equipment, architectural, see Ref- Hand-rail, height of 97

erence books. Hand-rail, turns Plate 59

kitchen 17 Head room of stairway loi

mechanical, see Reference books. Plate 59

Erasers 10 Heart h 103

Estimating, see Reference books. Heating, see Reference l)ooks.

Existing buildings, drawings of 53 Hexagon 15

History of .Architecture, sec Refer-
ence books.

Horizon line (jierspective) 21

Horizontal dimensions 52

Fabriano paper 10

Fillet, see Mouldings Plate 75 j

Fire place 103

Plate 61 Illumination, see Reference books.

Fircproofing, sec Reference books. Inci.scd letter Plate 80

Floor line 50 India ink 10

158

INDEX

Influence of stock material 47 Methods of representation Plate 2

Informal title 137 Metope, see Orders of Architecture.

Plate 80 Module 105

Ink 10 Mouldings 127

Inscription Icttcrinj; 141 Plate 75

Plates 80 & 81 Mounting drawing or water-color paper 43

Instruments, drawing g-io Mutular Doric Order 112

Plate 3 Plate 65

Introduction i Mutules, sec Orders of Architecture.

Ionic Order 113

Plate 67 N

shadows of Plate 16

Ionic volute iM ^^'^'"' "^""^'"^ ^'^^^ ^°

Plate 68 Nosing of stair step 97

Irregular curve 9

Irregular plan, method of laying out 67 O

Plate 34

Isometric, axis 29 Oblique axis 31

drawing 5-29 drawing 5-31

Plates 10 & II Platen

lines 29 ^^^^ building Plates 39-45

Old English alphabets Plate 83

^ Old Roman alphabet 131

Plates 78 & 79

Kitchen 19 Orders of Architecture 105

equipment 17 Plates 62-73

floors and walls 17 Orientation of the house 16

light and ventilation 17 Ornament on elevations 51

plan of 17 Ornament, see Reference books.

score card 17 Ornamental mouldings Plate 75

Orthographic projection 5

L Plates I & 2

Outline of study 143

Laws, see Reference books. Outside door details Plate 53

Ledged door Plate 52 Ovolo, see Mouldings Plate 75

Left-hand door 47

Lettering 131 p

Plates 77-84

See also Reference books on Paintmg, see Reference books.

lettering. Panelled door Plate 52

Lettering pens 10 Paper 10

Light and ventilation of kitchen 17 Parallel perspective 25

Light ray, conventional :2,7, Parthenon, Order of Plate 64

Lighting, see Reference books on Pen and ink board 10

illumination. see Lettering pens.

Lining of fireplace 103 Pen, see Ruling pen 10

Living room 16 Pencil g

Pentagon 15

j^ Perspective drawing 21

Plates 7 & 8

Magazines, architectural 149 angular '. 23

Measuring in perspective 21 Cochran residence Plate 9

Measuring up present work 53 parallel 25

Mechanical equipment, see Refer- scale of. 23

ence books. See also Reference books.

159

INDEX

Pictorial drawing 5 Roman Numerals.

Plate I

Picture plane (perspective) 21

Piers 105

Piling plan 77

Plate 39
Piping, see Reference books.

Plan symbols Plates 19 & 20

Plans 7-16

irregular method of laying out 67

Plate 34

of concrete and tile floor systems 69

Plate ;i,^

of reinforced concrete floors 69

Plate is

piling

Plate 39
Plinth, see Orders of Architecture.
Plumbing, see Reference books.

Plumbing fixtures Plate 19

Pointed arch 15

Points and Unes, shadows of 35

Practice sheet 45

water-color rendering Plate 18

PreUminary sketches 16

Plates 6-18

Proportions of fireplace 103

Plate 61

of the Orders Plate 62

of stairways 97

Publishers of architectural books and magazines

149-150

13s

RuHng pen 10

Scale 9

details 51

determination of 46

drawings 46

Plates 19-45

of details 85

of perspective drawings 23

of preliminary sketches 16

of working drawings 46

Scamilli, see Orders of Architecture.

Schedule of concrete girders, etc 69

Plate ;^:}

Score card, kitchen 17

Scotia, see Orders of Architecture

and Plate 75

Script, French 142

Plate 84

Section through stairway 101

Plate 59

Sections 7~5o

Plate 36 73

Shades and shadows ;^;^

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